1、AP微观经济梳理 AP 微观经济学知识点梳理 I. Basic Economic Concepts 经济学基础概念 (8–14%) 选择 A. Scarcity, choice and opportunity cost 稀缺性(概念),选择(概念),机会成本(计算) a. Scarcity(Unlimited want vs. Limited resources )→Make choices→ Economics b. O
2、pportunity cost (The best choice you give up) include explicit and implicit cost, the slope 公式:Opportunity Cost of doing A=loss in B / gain in A c. Factors of productions are resources. B. Production possibilities curve 生产可能性边界曲线(识图,计算) 横纵坐标轴分别是两种产品的产量,斜率是机会成本。 a. 曲线弯: law of increasing oppo
3、rtunity cost(生产鞋和电脑的资源不可相互替代);because the resources are not perfectly adaptable. b. 直的: 生产两种物品的资源可完全替代,也就是说资源完全可以通用,机会成本恒定。 C. Comparative advantage, absolute advantage, specialization and trade 比较优势(计算),绝对优势(计算),专业化(概念),贸易(概念) a. 绝对优势:more productive. 生产一单位less time or less input。(或者单位time或i
4、nput生产更多)如果给的是时间,则不用换算 b. 比较优势:lower opportunity cost. xxx/hour 别忘了是与本国生产另一产品的opportunity cost 相比较 c. Specialization and trade can increase productivity and output. Economic growth could be achieved by: Increase in the quantity of resources Increase in the quality of existing resources T
5、echnological advancements d. Trade can be good to both countries even if one country has the absolute advantage in all products. Two countries trade only when they have comparative advantage on different good. After trading, countries gain more production at lower cost. D. Economic systems, Pr
6、operty rights and the role of incentives 计划经济和市场经济(概念),产权(概念),激励的作用(概念) Command economy:公平equitable,government determines,but sophisticated to allocate properly, lack of incentives for innovation; Free/capitalism economy: private ownership, property rights, free, incentives, competition,供求决定价格,市
7、场决定生产多少消费多少。如果是mixed economy,则market和government共同决定。 F. Marginal analysis 边际思维(概念) MB>MC, 做这件事。Marginal=additional II. The Nature and Functions of Product Markets 产品市场的特点和功能 (55–70%) A. Supply and demand 供给和需求 (15–20%) 1. Market equilibrium 市场均衡 (先Q后P) Equilibrium quantity 由 Qs
8、和Qd决定:Qs=Qd D 的变动才会引起P的变动 2. Determinants of supply and demand 供给和需求的影响因素 影响需求 影响供给 Taste Tax /SubsidyCost of input Income Technology Price of substitute good Price of complement good Tax Expectation of price cost of
9、 inputs technology and productivity Subsidy/tax Expectation of price Price of other goods 切记:Price变动导致沿着曲线的移动,而不是曲线本身的移动;上表里的因素都是导致曲线本身移动的。 S,D同向移动:左(Q减少,P不定);右(Q增加,P不定) S,D反向移动:内(P增加,Q不定);外(P减少,Q不定) 3. Price control Price ceiling: Creates shortage price floor:最低工资是经典例子Creates sur
10、plus increase deadweight loss Welfare Analysis=consumer surplus+ producer surplus The market is efficient only when MB=MC, or total welfare is maximized. 4. Elasticity弹性 a. Price elasticity of demand Ed=(%change in quantity demanded of good x)/(%change in the price of good X) b. Price ela
11、sticity of supply 一定要分清问的是关于supply还是demand 需求和供给价格弹性算绝对值,不关心正负号;弹性为无穷时,叫Perfectly Elastic完全弹性,弹性大于1时,叫Relatively Elastic,弹性等于1时,叫Unit elastic,弹性小于1时,叫relatively inelastic,弹性等于0时,perfectly inelastic完全刚性。 应用:弹性为elastic时,P降低,Total Revenue会增加,因为Q增加的程度大于P降低的程度;为inelastic时,P降低,Total Revenue会减少,因为Q增
12、加的程度小于P降低的程度。 影响价格弹性的因素:奢侈品的弹性大于1,必需品的弹性小于1;时间长弹性大于1;替代品多弹性大于1;占收入比重大弹性大于1。 c. Income elasticity of demand EI=(%change in quantity demanded of good X)/(%change in income) 需求收入弹性正号表示物品是normal goods,负号表示inferior goods d. Cross-price elasticity of demand Ex,y=(%change in quantity demand of goo
13、d X)/(%change in price good Y) 交叉需求弹性正号表示A和B为substitution,负号表示A和B为complementary。 5. Consumer surplus, producer surplus and market efficiency剩余和市场效率 消费者剩余=支付意愿–市场价格;生产者剩余=市场价格–生产成本 Market efficiency: MB=MC, Total Surplus最大 Supply do the same(longer time, more elastic) 6. Tax incidence and d
14、eadweight loss税收负担和无谓损失 1. monopoly Perfectly competitive market Per-unit subsidy/tax MC&ATC both change Only ATC change Lump-sum subsidy/tax Nothing change Nothing change 2.Tax 永远是向sellers 收的,只是sellers根据elasticity of demand and supply 的不同来向consumer收钱。 3.Tax or subsidy/negative, positiv
15、e externality会造成deadweight loss, but shift of supply or demand curve 不会,因为它们形成了新的均衡点。 4.收税之后,suppliers & demanders charge different money.(one below, one above) 5.在画deadweight loss的时候,尖点永远是optimal point Trade Barriers Import when world price is lower. Export when world price is higher. Create
16、 deadweight loss TR of government=quantity imported/exported x the tariff C. Theory of consumer choice 消费者选择理论 (5–10%) 可能大题 1. Total utility and marginal utility 总效用和边际效用 Utility is the satisfaction or happiness law of diminishing marginal utility 2. Utility maximization: equalizing margi
17、nal utility per dollar 边际效用之比等于价格之比MU1/MU2 =P1/P2,在预算允许的条件下。 3. Income and substitution effects收入效应,替代效应 Income effect:normal: 都多买或少买 substitution effect:normal: 一个多买一个少买 inferior: income decrease 多买,price increase 少买 D. Production and costs生产与成本 (10–15%) 1. Production functions: short a
18、nd long run短期和长期的生产函数 Short run: only labor variable Long run: all variable 2. Marginal product and diminishing returns边际产量和边际产量递减规律 MP of A= additional output/ additional input of A Marginal returns start diminishing when MP decreases as L increases FC不变 随着labor的增加,MC增加(因为生产力下降) MC和MP的图! 3.
19、Short-run costs短期成本曲线 MC曲线最后是上扬的,是因为diminishing of marginal product,生产能力全部被利用之后,再增加边际投入,就会出现边际产量递减,边际成本递增。 4. Long-run costs and economies of scale长期成本曲线和规模经济 长期有economies of scale规模经济,指随着产量增加ATC不断下降,反之则是diseconomies of scale规模不经济, constant returns to scale规模收益不变指产量变动而ATC不变,或者说投入增加的倍数与产出增加的倍数相同。
20、 规模经济的产生是因为specialization& ability to purchase 5. Cost minimizing input combination成本最小化的要素组合 MPL/PL=MPK/PK E. Firm behavior and market structure企业行为和产业组织 (25–35%) 必出大题 1. Profit利润 a. Accounting profit,economic profit 会计利润(总收益-显性成本)和经济利润(总收益-显性成本-隐性成本) b. Normal profit 指的经济利润为0(但依然赚着会计利润)
21、 d. Profit maximization 对各种类型的企业都适用的利润最大化条件是当MR=MC时的产量,即使没有恰好相等的点,也要选择MR刚刚大于MC的那个产量。 2. Perfect competition完全竞争 Price taker→ No economic profit in the long run a. Profit maximization P=AR是恒等式,因为P=TR/Q,AR=TR/Q。完全竞争市场很特别,企业获得利润最大化的产量是在P=MC=MR=AR时。 b. Short-run supply and shutdown decision 短
22、期的企业供给曲线是MC曲线在AVC上方的那段;在短期,如果P 23、
特点:只有一家企业,因此需求曲线向右下方倾斜;自己定价,是price maker;有壁垒,因此有长期经济利润。
a. Sources of market power
Ownership; legal; natural(economies of scale)
b. Profit maximization
先通过MR=MC的条件确定产量Q,再通过需求曲线找到对应的P,这是垄断企业利润最大化的条件。P=AR>MR
c. Inefficiency of monopoly 垄断无效率
因为产量少于需求并且收取高于期望的价格,所以垄断是效率低的。too little of the p 24、roduction and charges too high a price.
会画图:知道Revenue maximizing(MR=0的产量),profit maximizing(MR=MC), efficient maximizing(P=MC)与fair return企业经济利润为0(ATC和D相交)这四种情况下的产量和价格。
d. Price discrimination 价格歧视
1.consumer surplus=0
2.produce at allocative efficient point
3.be able to separate buyers and b 25、lock them from retailing.
4. Monopolistic competition垄断竞争
a.Product differentiation and role of advertising
有许多卖者,每个卖者提供略有差别的产品,无壁垒,有决定价格的能力,做广告的必要性
b.Profit maximization
与垄断类似。先通过MR=MC的条件确定产量Q,再通过需求曲线找到对应的P,这是垄断竞争企业利润最大化的条件。P=AR>MR。
c.Short-run and long-run equilibrium
短期有profit或loss,吸 26、引新企业进入或旧企业退出市场。
进而达到长期均衡,D与ATC曲线相切,切点刚好是MC=MR投影到D的点,长期利润为0。因为在ATC的下降部分相切,所以有规模经济。
d.Excess capacity and inefficiency
垄断竞争无效率体现在:产能过剩 Excess capacity,价格过高 P>MC
5. Oligopoly 寡头
a.Interdependence, collusion and cartels
卡特尔、联盟、互赖
受反托拉斯法的约束,有market power,企业数量很少;合作的话,如同垄断一般获利最大,如果不合作,则利润不高。
27、b.Game theory and strategic behavior
会利用支付矩阵分析占优策略。必考。题目中可能一方有占优策略另一方无占优策略,那么没有的那方要先揣测出有占优的那方的意图。
F. Factor Markets要素市场. (10–18%) 出大题
1. Derived factor demand派生需求
对一种生产要素的需求来自(派生自)对另一种产品的需求。
↑D for product→↑price of product→↑MRPL→↑hiring of labor at the current wage
2. Marginal revenue produ 28、ct边际产量值
增加一单位劳力所引起的产值的变化 MRP=MP*MR=MP*P (perfectly competitive market)
3. Labor market and firms’ hiring of labor (perfectly competitive market)
D=MRP曲线,MRP=P*MPL S=wage
利润最大化雇用人数:w=VMP=MRP=P*MP
窍门:
a. 影响需求
1. product demand
2. productivity
Technical progress
Quantity of other resou 29、rces
quality of variable resources
3. prices of other resources
Substitute resources
Substitution effect
Income effect
Complementary resources
b. 影响供给
changes in taste
women works
people who rely parents increase
changes in other opportunities
immigration
(Monopsony)
Quantity 30、 is hired when MC=MRP
Price=Supply
G. Market Failure and the Role of Government市场失灵和政府管制 (12–18%)
1. Externalities外部性,出大题
a.Marginal social benefit and marginal social cost
b.Positive externalities
正外部性:MSB>MSC under allocation subsidy(per unit) lump sum subsidy has no effect on the 31、 graph.
c.Negative externalities
负外部性:MSB 32、
政府对垄断的管制
如果政府给垄断、垄断竞争、完全竞争企业一次性补贴或一次性征税(lump sum subsidy or tax),不会对企业的MC产生影响,因此不会影响利润最大化产量和价格。但由于影响了ATC,导致利润或loss有变化。如果征税或补贴是按单位per unit,则会影响MC,继而影响利润最大化产量和价格。
4. Income distribution促进市场竞争的政策
a.Equity
认识洛伦兹曲线:是反映收入不平等程度的。基尼系数是不规则图形面积比上大三角面积,越小越接近公平。
b.Sources of income inequality
收入不平等的 33、来源:歧视,教育程度不同,能力不同,动机不同。
必背定义
Scarcity
Law of increasing cost
Productive efficiency
Allocative efficiency
Marginal utility
The change in total utility that results from a one-unit increase in the quantity of a good or service consumed.
law of diminishing marginal utility
The general t 34、endency for marginal utility to decrease as the quantity of a good consumed increases.
Marginal product
The change in total product that results from a one-unit increase in the quantity of labor employed.
Increasing marginal returns
When the marginal product of an additional worker exceeds t 35、he marginal product of the previous worker.
Decreasing marginal returns
When the marginal product of an additional worker is less than the marginal product of the previous worker.
Derived demand
The demand for a factor of production, which is derived from the demand for the goods and service 36、s that it is used to produce.
注意
同学们经常错的知识点
1、 机会成本一定是备选项中最好的那个。在研究market时,包含explicit cost 和implicit cost。
2、 对比优势时,看清求绝对优势还是比较优势!比较优势给的是哪一种情况。
3、 一定要搞清S和D的影响因素!!!!!!给什么分析什么。作为产品,互为替代品或互补品,影响D;但作为生产要素(in production)互为替代品或互补品,影响S。
4、 完全竞争市场中,P vs AVC, shut down point,supply curve (short r 37、un);P vs ATC, economic profit or loss (short run or long run)
5、 MC=MR, profit maximizing;
MR=0,total revenue maximized;
P=MC,market efficient;
P=ATC, normal profit↔economic profit=0
6、 在有外部性存在的情况下求deadweight loss!!!!!!不能错!!!!!!
7、 Tax & subsidy
lump sum subsidy or tax:无论在何种市场里对MC都无影响,MC和MR都不变,所以P和Q不会变,但是影响ATC,所以会影响economic profit or loss。(2008.1)
Per unit subsidy or tax: (2006.2;2007.1)
影响MC, 从而影响Q。
收税/补贴多少。价格差多少,就收/补多少。
8、 不要主观行事,客观对待题目,给什么答什么,不能想当然!!!!!!






