1、Hepatitis viruses肝炎病毒肝炎病毒(Hepatitis virus)n n以侵害肝脏为主引起病毒性肝炎的病毒n n种类:甲型肝炎病毒(HAV)、乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)、丙型肝炎病毒(HCV)、丁型肝炎病毒(HDV)、戊型肝炎病毒(HEV)、GBV-C/HGV、TTVn n其他病毒如黄热病毒、EBV、风疹病毒等也可引起肝炎,但不列为肝炎病毒Hepatitis A virusn n1973年Feinstone应用免疫电镜技术从急性肝炎患者粪便悬液中发现n n生物学性状与肠道病毒一致,故1982年国际病毒命名委员会将它分类为小核糖核酸病毒科肠道病毒属72型Anti-HAV Preva
2、lenceAnti-HAV PrevalenceHighIntermediateLowVery LowGeographic Distribution of HAV infection生物学性状生物学性状n nHAV为球形颗粒,直径2732nm,无包膜。基因组为线状单正链RNAn n由VP14四种多肽组成,VP1是主要衣壳蛋白和中和抗原,能中和所有HAVn n细胞培养:HAV可用猴肾、人胚肾细胞等进行增殖和传代,但不引起CPEn n易感动物有黑猩猩、南美洲猴、猕猴等,接种后可出现急性肝炎n n抵抗力:较强,对乙醚、酸、热(60oC)稳定。高压、紫外、煮沸等可灭活致病性致病性n n传染源为患者和隐
3、性感染者n n传播方式是粪口途径。HAV污染食物、水源、海产品等引起暴发或散发流行 n n隐性感染率高,成人HAV抗体阳性率高达70%90%n n病毒进入机体经过两次病毒血症,到达肝脏,在肝细胞增殖致病n n非溶细胞型病毒,不直接杀伤细胞,患者症状高峰是潜伏期末和症状出现初期,与病毒复制高峰时间不相符,说明病毒复制量与症状严重程度不一致,故认为免疫应答参与损伤过程n n发病后期粪便中可检出sIgA抗体。出现病毒的特异细胞免疫应答n n典型的甲肝是自限过程,大约三个月,无慢性病例防治原则防治原则n n加强食品卫生管理,水源保护。但HAV感染以隐性感染和无黄疸型病毒例占多数,故对传染源较难控制n
4、n我国已批准将减毒疫苗株H2株和L1株投放市场试用n n应急预防可用丙种球蛋白n n基因工程疫苗也正在研究之中Hapatitis B Virusn n1963年Blumberg在多次输血的血友病患者中发现澳抗,1968年确与血清型肝炎高度相关,1970年Dane在电镜下看到具有传染性的42nm病毒颗粒n nHBV在亚洲广泛流行,在中国约10%人口携带该病毒,全球约3.5亿n n19831983年将年将HBVHBV及与其分子结构、生物学特性相似的土拨鼠及与其分子结构、生物学特性相似的土拨鼠肝炎病毒肝炎病毒(woodchuck hepatitis virus,WHV)(woodchuck hepa
5、titis virus,WHV)、地松鼠肝炎病毒、地松鼠肝炎病毒(ground squirrel hepatitis virus,GSHV)(ground squirrel hepatitis virus,GSHV)及鸭肝炎病毒及鸭肝炎病毒(duck hepatits(duck hepatits virus,DHV)virus,DHV)归纳起来独立命名为归纳起来独立命名为嗜肝病毒科嗜肝病毒科(HepadnaviridaeHepadnaviridae)HBsAg Prevalence8%-High 2-7%-Intermediate 2%-LowGeographic Distribution o
6、f Chronic HBV Infection形态与结构n n电镜检查血清标本可见小球电镜检查血清标本可见小球形颗粒(形颗粒(22nm22nm)、管形颗)、管形颗粒(粒(22nmx50700nm22nmx50700nm)、大)、大球形颗粒(球形颗粒(42nm42nm)n n完整的HBV颗粒亦称Dane颗粒,颗粒直径为42nmn n具有双层衣壳结构。外壳相当于包膜,由脂质双层和乙肝表面抗原(HBsAg)、多聚人血清白蛋白受体(PHSA-r)和前S抗原(Pre-S)组成。内部有28nm的核心,表面相当于内衣壳,含有乙型肝炎核心抗原(HBcAg)和乙型肝炎e抗原(HBeAg)。内部有HBV的DNA和
7、DNA多聚酶HBV 基因组n nDNA是由3.2KB的长链 L(-)和短链 S(+)(约为L链的50%至85%长)组成的不完全双链环状DNA,长链载有病毒蛋白质的全部密码,有4个开放读码框架(ORF),分别称为S、C、P和X区 抗原组成n nHBV表面抗原(HBsAg),是机体受HBV感染的标志。226AA,由S基因编码。HBsAg有一个共同抗原决定簇a和二组互相排斥的亚型抗原决定簇d/y和w/r。因此,HBsAg可分为adr、adw、ayr和 ayw4种亚型。我国内地和沿海各省汉族主要为adr型,欧美为adw n nHBsAg刺激机体产生的抗HBs,能与HBV表面结合,使其失去感染性,具有防
8、御HBV感染的作用n nHBV核心抗原(HBcAg),在肝细胞核中才能检出。分子量22KD,由C基因编码,是病毒的内衣壳蛋白。通常被HBsAg或与抗HBc抗体结合成免疫复合物,一般方法在血中检测不到,只能在肝细胞内检出。是致敏CTL作用的靶抗原n n抗HBc无中和作用,检出高效价抗HBc,特别是抗HBc IgM表示HBV再肝内处于增殖状态n nHBVe抗原(HBeAg),由PreC和C基因共同编码,15KD,是HBcAg在细胞经蛋白酶降解形成。是HBV复制及血清有传染性的标志n n抗HBe对HBV感染有一定保护作用n n前S抗原(Pre-S Ag),目前认为,HBsAg由三种蛋白组成。病毒小球
9、颗粒只有主要蛋白,而大球形颗粒和管形颗粒里则有300400分子的主要蛋白和4080分子的中等蛋白和大分子蛋白n n主要蛋白:主要蛋白:S S基因编码,基因编码,226AA226AAn n中等蛋白:中等蛋白:S+PreS2S+PreS2编码,编码,226+55=281AA226+55=281AA,称,称前前S2S2蛋白或抗原蛋白或抗原n n大分子蛋白:大分子蛋白:S+PreS2+PreS1S+PreS2+PreS1编码,编码,226+55+226+55+119=400AA119=400AA,称前,称前S1S1蛋白或抗原蛋白或抗原n nPre-S2抗原和人肝细胞表面都具有PHSA受体,通过PHSA
10、r搭桥,HBV病毒易吸附于肝细胞表面,这也可以部分解释为什么HBV具有嗜肝细胞性n nPre-S抗原的出现与HBsAg、HBV DNA的检出意义相同,都说明病毒在复制n n抗前S1和抗前S2抗体具有中和血循环内的HBV作用,故具有阻止HBV侵入肝细胞的免疫防御作用n n易感动物和细胞培养:只有黑猩猩对HBV易感,体外细胞培养尚未成功n n抵抗力:认为抵抗力相当强n n对低温、干燥、UV、醚、氯仿、酚等均有抵抗性n n高压蒸汽灭菌、0.5%过氧乙酸、5%次氯酸钠、3%漂白粉液、0.2%新洁尔灭均可灭活病毒,但处理时间要稍长n n传染源:急、慢性乙肝患者及无症状携带者传染源:急、慢性乙肝患者及无症
11、状携带者n n传播途径:非胃肠道途径传播途径:非胃肠道途径n n血液、血制品传播:输血、丙种球蛋白血液、血制品传播:输血、丙种球蛋白n n医源性传播:注射(吸毒)、手术、采血、针医源性传播:注射(吸毒)、手术、采血、针刺、拨牙、内窥镜检查、纹身等刺、拨牙、内窥镜检查、纹身等n n母婴传播:发生在围产期,通过产道或吞入羊母婴传播:发生在围产期,通过产道或吞入羊水等因素。宫内感染相对少(水等因素。宫内感染相对少(10%10%)。母亲)。母亲HBeAgHBeAg阳性婴儿感染机会大(阳性婴儿感染机会大(90%90%),),HBeAgHBeAg阴阴性、抗性、抗HBeHBe阳性婴儿感染机率小(阳性婴儿感染
12、机率小(10%15%10%15%)n n接触传播:公共卫生洁具、剃刀、吸血昆虫接触传播:公共卫生洁具、剃刀、吸血昆虫*Includes sexual contact with acute cases,carriers,and multiple partners.Source:CDC Sentinel Counties Study of Viral HepatitisHeterosexual*(41%)Homosexual Activity(9%)Household Contact(2%)Health Care Employment(1%)Other(1%)Unknown(31%)Injecti
13、ngDrug Use(15%)Risk factors for Acute Hepatitis B1992-1993 USA致病机理n n尚未完全明了。一般认为HBV不直接损害肝细胞,而产通过宿主的免疫应答引起肝细胞的损伤和破坏,出现相应临床表现n n细胞免疫损伤:以抗原特异CTL为主。直接杀伤或释放淋巴因子间接杀伤肝细胞。细胞免疫强弱与临床过程轻重与转归密切相关。免疫力过强可出现重症肝炎,过低则是慢性肝炎n n体液免疫损伤:并不十分重要,因为先天性无丙种球蛋白血症患者的乙肝仍表现为典型的肝炎病变。抗原抗 体复合物导致的超敏反应,造成了肝外症状表现,如关节炎、皮疹、肾小球肾炎等n n自身免疫损
14、伤:HBV感染后,肝细胞自身表面抗原肝特异性脂蛋白抗原(Liver specific protein,LSP)暴露,自身抗体加重肝细胞损伤HBV与原发性肝细胞癌n n乙肝患者原发性肝癌发生率比对照高。原发性肝癌患者血清中,有HBV感染标志者比自然人群多。HBV感染者比阴性者发生原发性肝癌的危险性高217倍n n与HBV分子生物学相似的WHV在其宿主土拨鼠中可诱导肝硬化及原发性肝癌。新生土拨鼠感染WHV三年后100%发生肝癌,未感染鼠则无一只发生肝癌n n肝癌细胞DNA整合有HBV-DNA免疫性n n体液免疫:有免疫防御作用的有抗HBs和抗Pre-S2,是HBV的中和抗体n n细胞免疫:CTL是
15、清除细胞内病毒的主要机制,如细胞免疫处于较低水平则易转为慢性微生物学检查法微生物学检查法n n病毒核酸的检测:斑点杂交法,PCR,极敏感的方法,临床常规。对血清病毒DNA浓度可做动态监测n nHBV抗原、抗体的检测n n最敏感方法是RIA、ELISAn n检测的项目主要是HBsAg和抗-HBs、HBeAg和抗-HBe、以及抗-HBcIgM和抗HBc-IgGSymptomsHBeAganti-HBeTotal anti-HBcIgM anti-HBcanti-HBsHBsAg0481216202428323652100Typical Serologic CourseWeeks after Exp
16、osureTitreAcute Hepatitis B Virus Infection with RecoveryIgM anti-HBcTotal anti-HBcHBsAgAcute(6 months)HBeAgChronic(Years)anti-HBe048 12 16 20 24 28 32 3652YearsWeeks after ExposureTitreProgression to Chronic Hepatitis B Virus InfectionTypical Serologic Coursen nHBsA:表示机体感染了HBV。阳性见于n n急性乙型肝炎潜伏期和急性期(
17、70%)n nHBV所致的慢性肝病如慢性乙型肝炎、肝硬化和原发性肝炎n n无症状HBsAg携带者n n抗HBs:表示机体曾感染过HBV,并获得对HBV的免疫力n nHBcAg:常规方法难以检出,临床不做n n抗HBcn n抗HBc IgM出现于急性乙型肝炎急性期n n抗HBc IgG阳性表示过去感染过HBV,少数也可能仍有HBV感染n nHBeAg:HBeAg阳性是体内有HBV复制和血液传染性强的标志n n急性乙肝HBeAg呈短暂阳性,如持续阳性提示转为慢性,预后不良n n孕妇HBeAg阳性,新生儿感染率高n n抗Hbe:见于急性乙肝的恢复期,可持续较长时间,表示机体获得一定免疫力n nPre
18、S1、Pre-S2和PHSA受体:HBV新感染的标志,检出表示HBV正在复制n n抗Pre-S1、抗Pre-S2:有中和病毒作用,出现于急性乙肝恢复早期,消失较快Examples of Serology Test预防原则预防原则n n要采取切断传播途径为主的综合性措施n n自动免疫:HBsAg疫苗(血源或重组)n n被动免疫:乙肝免疫球蛋白(HBIg)。接种者:n n医务人员或实验室工作人员n nHBsAg、HBeAg阳性母亲的新生儿n n发现已误用HBsAg阳性的血液或血制品者n n与HBsAg、HBeAg阳性者有密切性接触者Hepatitis C virusn n1978年WHO将非甲非
19、乙型肝炎病毒按传播途径分为肠道传播的非甲非乙型病毒和肠道外传播的非甲非乙型肝炎病毒n n1989年进一步将前者命名为戊型肝炎病毒(HEV),将后者命名为丙型肝炎病毒(HCV)n n目前拟将HCV和庚型肝炎病毒(HGV)列入黄病毒科(Flavivurus)Hepacivirus属生物学性状生物学性状n nHCV属于黄病毒科,电镜照片不清晰,似球形,直径5565 nm,有脂蛋白包膜,包膜上有短突起。核酸为+ssRNA,9.4Kbn n由于不能培养,故尚不能进行血清分型。据基因序列同源性,现分为I VI六个基因型。中国和亚洲流行多型,欧美为I 型n n细胞培养未成功。黑猩猩是唯一易感动物 hyper
20、variableregioncapsidenvelopeproteinprotease/helicaseRNA polymerasec225coreE1E2NS2NS333cNS4c-100NS53Hepatitis C Virus Genome Hepatitis C-Clinical Features潜伏期 平均6-7周(2-26周)急性表现(黄疸)轻微(20%)急性期死亡率 低慢性感染率75%-85%慢性肝炎70%肝硬化10%-20%慢性肝脏疾病导致死亡1%-5%Chronic Hepatitis C Infectionn nThe spectrum of chronic hepatit
21、is C infection is The spectrum of chronic hepatitis C infection is essentially essentially the same as chronic hepatitis B the same as chronic hepatitis B infectioninfection.n nAll the manifestations of chronic hepatitis B All the manifestations of chronic hepatitis B infection may be seeninfection
22、may be seen,albeit with a lower,albeit with a lower frequency i.e.chronic persistent hepatitis,chronic frequency i.e.chronic persistent hepatitis,chronic active hepatitis,cirrhosis,and hepatocellular active hepatitis,cirrhosis,and hepatocellular carcinomacarcinoma.病理n nHCV不直接杀伤细胞,故其致病机理被认是病理免疫和细胞凋亡是
23、造成伤害的原因Transmission of HCVn nPercutaneous n nIntravenous drug abusen nTransfusion,transplant n nTherapeutic(contaminated equipment,unsafe injection practices)n nPermucosaln nPerinataln nSexualSources of Infection forPersons with Hepatitis CSexual 15%Other*5%Unknown 10%Injecting drug use 60%Transfusi
24、on 10%(before screening)*Nosocomial;Health-care work;PerinatalSource:Centers for Disease Control and PreventionHCV Prevalence by Selected Groups,USAHemophiliaInjecting drug usersSurgeons,PSWsHemodialysis Average Percent Anti-HCV PositiveGen population adultsMilitary personnelSTD clientsPregnant wome
25、nPrevalence of HCV Infection by Age&Gender,1988-1994 USAMalesFemalesSource:CDC,NHANES IIITotalPerinatal Transmission of HCVn nTransmission only from women HCV-RNA positive at deliveryn nAverage rate of infection 6%Average rate of infection 6%n nHigher(17%)if woman co-infected with HIVHigher(17%)if w
26、oman co-infected with HIVn nNo association withn nDelivery methodDelivery methodn nBreastfeedingBreastfeedingn nInfected infants do welln nSevere hepatitis is rareSevere hepatitis is rare*Reported in U.S.Household Transmission of HCVn nRare but not absentn nCould occur through percutaneous/mucosal e
27、xposures to bloodn nTheoretically through sharing of contaminated Theoretically through sharing of contaminated personal articles(razors,toothbrushes)personal articles(razors,toothbrushes)n nContaminated equipment used for home Contaminated equipment used for home therapiestherapiesn nInjections*Inj
28、ections*n nFolk remediesFolk remediesSerologic Pattern of Acute HCV Infection with RecoverySymptoms+/-Time after ExposureTiteranti-HCVALTNormal01234561234YearsMonthsHCV RNA Serologic Pattern of Chronic HCV Infection with Progression InfectionSymptoms+/-Time after ExposureTiteranti-HCVALTNormal012345
29、61234YearsMonthsHCV RNA Laboratory Diagnosisn nHCV antibodyHCV antibody-generally used to diagnose hepatitis C -generally used to diagnose hepatitis C infection.Not useful in the acute phase as it takes at least 4 infection.Not useful in the acute phase as it takes at least 4 weeks after infection b
30、efore antibody appears.weeks after infection before antibody appears.n nHCV-RNAHCV-RNA -various techniques are available e.g.PCR and-various techniques are available e.g.PCR and branched DNA.May be used to diagnose HCV infection in branched DNA.May be used to diagnose HCV infection in the acute phas
31、e.However,its main use is in monitoring the the acute phase.However,its main use is in monitoring the response to antiviral therapy.response to antiviral therapy.n nHCV-antigenHCV-antigen-an EIA for HCV antigen is available.It is -an EIA for HCV antigen is available.It is used in the same capacity a
32、s HCV-RNA tests but is much used in the same capacity as HCV-RNA tests but is much easier to carry out.easier to carry out.HCV Infection Testing Algorithmfor Diagnosis of Asymptomatic PersonsEIA for Anti-HCVEIA for Anti-HCVNegative(non-reactive)STOPPositive(repeat reactive)ORRIBA for Anti-HCVRIBA fo
33、r Anti-HCVRT-PCR for HCV RNANegativeSTOPAdditional Laboratory Additional Laboratory Evaluation(e.g.PCR,ALT)Evaluation(e.g.PCR,ALT)NegativePositiveIndeterminateMedical Medical EvaluationEvaluationPositiveNegative PCR,Normal ALTPositive PCR,Abnormal ALTSource:MMWR 1998;47(No.RR 19)Routine HCV Testing
34、Not Recommended(Unless Risk Factor Identified)n nHealth-care,emergency medical,and public safety workers n nPregnant women n nHousehold(non-sexual)contacts of HCV-positive personsScreening of blood,organ,tissue donorsHigh-risk behavior modificationBlood and body fluid precautions Prevention of Hepat
35、itis CEstimated Incidence of Acute HCV Infection,1960-1999 USADecline intransfusion recipientsDecline in injection drug usersSource:Hepatology 2000;31:777-82 Hepatology 1997;26:62S-65S Posttransfusion Hepatitis C All volunteer donorsHBsAgDonor Screening for HIV Risk FactorsAnti-HIVALT/Anti-HBcAnti-H
36、CVImproved HCV TestsAdapted from HJ Alter and Tobler and Busch,Clin Chem 1997Treatmentn nInterferon-may be considered for patients with chronic active hepatitis.The response rate is around 50%but 50%of responders will relapse upon withdrawal of treatment.n nRibavirin-there is less experience with ri
37、bavirin than interferon.However,recent studies suggest that a combination of interferon and ribavirin is more effective than interferon alone.Hepatitis D virusn n又称肝炎病毒(Hepatitis virus)n n从HBV感染者中发现的HDV PrevalenceHighIntermediateLowVery LowNo DataTaiwanPacific IslandsGeographic Distribution of HDV I
38、nfection生物学性状生物学性状n nHDV为直径3537nm的球形颗粒,核心含有环状单股负链RNA和HDAg(即抗原),表面为HBV包膜蛋白(HBsAg)包裹。HDV RNA全长为1.7KbHBsAgRNAd d antigenn nHDV为缺陷病毒,不能独立进行复制,必须在HBV或其它嗜肝DNA病毒辅助才能增殖n n敏感动物黑猩猩,土拨鼠和北京鸭等Coinfectionsevere acute disease.low risk of chronic infection.Superinfectionusually develop chronic HDV infection.high ri
39、sk of severe chronic liver disease.may present as an acute hepatitis.Hepatitis D-Clinical FeaturesPercutanous exposures injecting drug usePermucosal exposures sex contact HDV Transmission免疫性n n抗HDV 不能清除病毒,为诊断指标n n抗HDV IgM感染2周后产生。如HDV IgM和IgG持续存在,提示为HDV慢性感染Time after Time after ExposureExposureTiterT
40、iteranti-HBsSymptomsALT ElevatedTotal anti-HDVIgM anti-HDVHDV RNAHBsAgSerological Course of Acute HDV infectionTime after Time after ExposureExposureTiterTiterJaundiceSymptomsALTTotal anti-HDVIgM anti-HDVHDV RNAHBsAgSerological Course of HDV superinfection微生物学检查法微生物学检查法n n血清学方法:ELISA检查HDAg或抗HDV。HDAg
41、在急性期可阳性,检出率低。慢性感染检不到n n核酸分子杂交法nHBV-HDV CoinfectionPre or postexposure prophylaxis to prevent HBV infection.nHBV-HDV SuperinfectionEducation to reduce risk behaviors among persons with chronic HBV infection.Hepatitis D-PreventionHepatitis E virusn n戊型肝炎病毒(Hepatitis E virus,HEV),所致的疾病称为戊型肝炎。是经肠道传播的非甲非
42、乙型肝炎病毒Geographic Distribution of Hepatitis E生物学性状生物学性状n nHEV呈球形,直径2738nm,核酸为线形(-)ssRNA,无包膜,表面呈现锯齿状,20面体立体对称。现分类于杯状病毒n n只有一个血清型。但基因序列有差异n n易感动物是非洲绿猴、恒河猴、黑猩猩致病性致病性n n主要通过粪口途径传播,主要因水源污染造成流行,极小生活接触导致感染n n多感染2040岁成人,潜伏期29周,临床表现为急性肝炎,6周即恢复。少数重症死亡。无慢性感染病例n n致病机理不明,免疫损伤是主要机制。病后有一定免疫力Weeks after Weeks after
43、ExposureExposureTiterTiterSymptomsALTIgG anti-HEVIgM anti-HEVVirus in stool012345678910111213Serological Course of HEV infection微生物学检查法微生物学检查法n n免疫电镜n n血清学方法,检测抗-HEVn nHEV核酸检测nAvoid drinking water(and beverages with ice)of unknown purity,uncooked shellfish,and uncooked fruit/vegetables not peeled or
44、 prepared by traveler.nIG prepared from donors in Western countries does not prevent infection.nUnknown efficacy of IG prepared from donors in endemic areas.nVaccine?Prevention and Control Measures for Travelers to HEV-Endemic Regions庚型肝炎病毒 n n近年来新发现的一些肝炎病毒,研究较多的是庚型肝炎病毒(HGV)n nHGV是1995年发现,属黄病毒科,核酸为+
45、ssRNA,9.4KB,编码一个ORF。黑猩猩易感n nHGV感染世界分布,主要经血或肠道外传播、垂直传播和性传播。受血者、接触血源的医务工作者和静脉注射吸毒者是高危人群 n n临床感染可表现为急性和慢性过程。HGV常与HCV重叠感染。病后抗HGV E2具有一定保护作用n n诊断主要是血清学方法或PCR。HGV是否嗜肝仍不清楚,因为与疾病关系必须将HBV、HDV、HCV感染排除后才可确认 Source ofvirusfecesblood/blood-derivedbody fluidsblood/blood-derivedbody fluidsblood/blood-derivedbody f
46、luidsfecesRoute oftransmissionfecal-oralpercutaneouspermucosalpercutaneouspermucosalpercutaneouspermucosalfecal-oralChronicinfectionnoyesyesyesnoPreventionpre/post-exposureimmunizationpre/post-exposureimmunizationblood donorscreening;risk behaviormodificationpre/post-exposureimmunization;risk behavi
47、ormodificationensure safedrinkingwaterSummary:Type of HepatitisABCDEQuestion Examplesn nCompare HAV and HBV according to the following criteria:classification,genome,presence of envelope,clinical features,and transmissions.n nWhat are the three important antigens in the HBV particle?n nWhy is the delta agent found only in persons infected with HBV?问题n n肝炎病毒有哪些?肝炎病毒有哪些?n n简述简述甲型肝炎病毒甲型肝炎病毒的传播方式、致病特点和预防的传播方式、致病特点和预防原则原则n n简述简述乙型肝炎病毒乙型肝炎病毒的生物学性状、的生物学性状、抗原抗体组成抗原抗体组成及检出的意义及检出的意义n n乙型肝炎病毒乙型肝炎病毒的传播方式和致病特点及预防原则的传播方式和致病特点及预防原则






