英语词汇学复习资料.doc

《英语词汇学》复习资料
Introduction English as a global
1. Lexicology（词汇学） is a branch of linguistics（语言学）.
2. Lexicology和哪些重要的学科建立了联系
1) Morphology（构词学）2) Semantics（语义学）3) Stylistics（语体学） 4) Etymology（词源学）
3. 研究lexicology的两大方法
1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学
2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学
Chapter 1 Lexicology and basic concepts of words and vocabulary
1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary (任意的)and conventional（约定的,俗称的）.
3. sound ＆ form
The sound should be similar to/consistent with the form ,but there are some illogical不合逻辑的and irregularity不规则的
1) influenced by Romans
2) Pronunciation changed
3) early scribes （抄写员）
4) borrowing
4. Vocabulary ——Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.
5. Classification of Words
basic full/content 实义词 native/Anglo-Saxon words
frequency notion origin
nonbasic/vocabulary functional/empty 功能词 borrowed/loan
(1) The characteristics of basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the
All national character common care of the language.
Stability（稳定性）
Productivity（多产性）
Polysemy （一词多义）
Collocability （可搭配性） neutral in style（中立性）
(2) Two feature of native words
frequent in use
据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少? 50,000 to 60,000他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue )
(3)什么叫borrowed words?
1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.
2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary
3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionarysome 80% of the entries are borrowed.
Chapter 2 The development of the English vocabulary
1. Old English属于Indo-European language family（印欧语系）—— Germanic（日耳曼语系），与德语最相似.
2. History　
1）Old English （450-1150）
a. The first people known to inhabit（居住）England were Celts，the language was Celtic（凯尔特语）.
b. The second language was the Latin（拉丁语）of the Roman Legions罗马军队）.
Roman invasion → Anglo-Saxon
三个事件 The introduction of Christianity→ 拉丁文的涌入
Viking invasion（北欧海盗）and Scandinavian斯堪的纳维亚语传入
2） Middle English （1150-1500）　　
The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English——上层人物
13世纪末English gradually come back into public areas.
在英语发展过程在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？ French, Latin, English in Middle English period
easel, port, freight, 出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？ Middle English , Dutch（带来了2500 个词汇）
3） Modern English （1500-up to now）
The Renaissance（文艺复兴）: Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage（文化遗产）.
The Industrial Revolution（工业革命）: 17世纪中期With the growth of colonization（殖民化）, British tentacles（魔爪） began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe， thus enabling English to absorb（吸收）words from all major languages of the world.
十六世纪，有一种新工业Printing出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响,这导致sound and form 出现concord（一致）和standardization
第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu 标准化
Inflectional language屈折语 Analytical language分析语　　
Three main sources（来源）new words
The rapid development of modern science and technology
Social,economic and political changes
　 The influence of other cultures and languages
Three modes of vocabulary development
　 Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely roots,affixes and other elements.
　 Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.
　 Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（particularly in earlier time）
Chapter 3 The structure of English words
1. Morpheme —— A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）
Free → can stand alone as a word/ independent of other morphemes
Type prefixation 前缀
Lexical → derivational → affixation
　　 Bound → added to other morphemes suffixation 后缀
Grammatical → inflectional
2. Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete（离散的）units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.
Monomorphenic words —— morphemes are realized by single morphs.
Allomorph（词素变体）—— Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position.
3. Root —— A root is the basic form of a word,which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.
（What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.）
Stem —— a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.
　 Base ——refers to a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.It can be a root or stem.　
a stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus a affix.
a stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root.
请加以区别下面两个词的特征: nation , dict 加以理论的分析
(1) Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alone in a sentence,
(2) Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free
root, still remains
Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict
has to combine with the other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary , contradiction .
Chapter 4 Word-formation in English
1. There are four main types of word-formation in English.
(1) ★ Affixation （prefixation and suffixation）构词能力最强
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word forming or derivational affixes to stems.
(2) Compounding/Composition 复合法 —— a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.
eg: blue-stocking 有教养的女子 moonwalk太空步 toothache牙痛 deadline截止期限brainwashing洗脑 stockholder股东 outbreak 爆发 sit-in静坐罢工 going-over 苛斥；毒打；严格的检查 crybaby爱哭的人；宝贝 cleaning lady清洁女工
Free phrase: son-in-law女婿 milk-and-water无味的；软弱无力的 forget-me-not勿忘草
aspects
compound
free phrase
phonetic语音features
Stress on the first element
Stress on the second element（元素）
Semantic features
Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.

Grammatical features
A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence ,for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes. 
(3) Conversion转换法——is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. The most productive is between nouns and verbs. It is also known as functional shift.
full conversion —— It can take an indefinit article(不定冠词) or - (e)s to indicate singular or plural number.
e.g. black→a black drinkable→ drinkables
partial conversion —— must be used together with definite articles. e.g. rich→the rich
2. Other types of word-formation
(1) Clipping/shortening —— shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the origin and using what remains instead.
quake（earthquake） dorm（dormitory） pop（popular music） flu（influenza）
(2) Acronymy首字母缩略法——joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms eg: VOA  -  Voice of America TV  -  television
(3) Blending混合法——is the word formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.
绝大多数blending 都是nouns eg: smog（烟雾）from smoke+fog telex（电传机）from teleprinter+exchange
Medicare（医疗保险）from medical+care lunarnaut（登月宇航员）from lunar+astronaut
(4) Back-formation逆构词法—— is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion删除of a supposed affix. donate（donation） loaf（loafer） babysit （babysitter） laze （lazy）
Chapter 5 Word meaning
1. Analytical(referential)分析的　　 Reference– the relationship between language and the world.

Operational(contextual)运用到具体场景中 Concept – which beyond language is the result of human cognition reflecting the objective world in the human mind
★Sense
1）sense denotes the relationships inside the language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’
2）Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction.
3）Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)
2. Motivation（理据）—— accounts for the connection between the linguistic（语言学的）symbol and its meaning.
　non-motivated
Onomatopoeic（拟声的）—— the words whose sounds suggest their meaning.
eg :bang， ping-pang， crow by cocks
Morphological（形态学的）—— Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of
many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined.
Motivated eg: airmail means to “mail by air”
Semantic（语义学的）——refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual概念上的meaning of a word.
eg：at the foot of mountain, the mouth of river
Etymological（词源学的）——The history of the word explains the meaning of the word.
3.Types of meaning
　 Grammatical 语法– refer to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships
Conceptual 概念—— the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core核心of word-meaning.
Lexical 词汇 Connotative内涵意义 eg：Mother — a female parent — love
Associative联想 Stylistic语体 1)formal 2)neutral 3)informal
Affective/Emotive —— appreciative and pejorative
Collocative固定搭配
Chapter 6 Sense relations
1. Polysemy一词多义
（1）定义：polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages. the same word may have two or more different meanings.
　　e.g. The word “flight” may mean “passing through the air”， “power of flying”， “air of journey”， etc.
Diachronic approach eg : face 具有一个primary meaning也有很多的derived meanings
（2）Two approaches harvest意思是time of cutting, time of harvest,现在是指yield of grain or food
Synchronic approach
Radiation 辐射 像车轮式一样进行发展的语义e.g. face, neck
（3）Two process of development
　　　　 Concatenation – meaning “linking together”串联
2. Homonymy
（1）定义：Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical（完全相同的）both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
　　 Perfect Homonyms　同音同形异义词　e.g. bear忍受；熊 ball 球；舞会
（2）Types　 Homographs同形异义　e.g. minute分钟；微小的
　　 Homophones同音异义（most common）　　e.g. dear/dear 亲爱的；昂贵的 meat/meet
Change in sound and spelling
（3）Origins of Homonyms　 Borrowing
Shortening
3.Synonymy同义词
（1）定义：Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.
Absolute regioned地域（British English＆American English）
（2）Types　　 stylistics degree
Relative（Near） shades of meaning
emotive range
collocative搭配
Borrowing（the most important source）
（3）Sources of Synonyms Dialects方言and regional English eg: railway （BrE）; railroad （AmE）
来源 Figurative比喻的，象征的and euphemistic委婉的use of words
　　 Coincidence一致；巧合with idiomatic expressions习惯用语
Difference in denotation意义
（4）Discrimination of Synonyms Difference in connotation内涵
　　 Difference in application应用
4.Antonymy反义词
（1）定义：Antonymy is concerned with semantic语义学的opposition.
Contradictory/complementary 绝对反义 eg: alive — dead，male – female不可以用形容词比较级, 程度副词加以修饰
（2）Types Contrary/ gradable/comparision eg: hot —（warm,cool）— cold
Relative (depend on each other) eg: parent — child , sell— buy , predecessor 前辈— successor继承者
（3）Characteristics
1）Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.
2）A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.
　3）Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.
　4）Contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity,so each has its own corresponding opposition.
（4）Use　　
。 Antonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defining the meanings of words.
　　fresh bread – stale bread， fresh air – stuff air， fresh flower – faded flower， fresh look – tired look
。 Antonyms are useful to express economically the opposition of a particular thought， often for the sake of contrast.
。 Many idioms are formed with antonyms.
eg : Rain and shine无论如何 Weal and woe祸福 Friend and foe敌友 Now or never机不可失 Thick and thin不顾艰难险阻
High and low到处 Give an take互让，平等 Easy come,easy go. 来的易，去得快 More haste,less speed. 欲速则不达
　 United we stand， divided we fall.团结则存，分裂则亡
5.Hyponymy 包涵
（1）定义：Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is to say, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.
superordinate（上义词）—— general
2）Types
hyponyms / sobordinate（下义词）——specific
eg : furnature 是superordinate ; desk, table, chair, cupboard是furniture的subordinate words或者称作hyponyms
Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning
Extension/generalization —— is a term referring to the widening of meaning.
eg : Picture painting include “drawings” and even “photographs”
Sandwitch 最早是指三明治这个家族, 但是现在是指一切快餐类食品
Narrowing /specialization—— is a term referring to the shrinking of meaning.
1. Types eg : wife : woman → a married woman ；the Pennisular : 专指利比利亚半岛
Degradation/ pejoration —— It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective
降格 words come to be used in derogatory sense.
eg : lust : pleasure → sexual desirex
Elevation/ ameliration—— refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of
升格 importance.
eg : nice: Ignorant → foolish, delightful, pleasant
Euphemism 委婉语
Shortening eg : Gold for gold medal
linguistic Factors Borrowing eg : Deer / animal / beast
2. Causes