市场营销专业价格策略毕业论文文献翻译中英文对照.pdf

word 文档 可自由复制编辑 DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIES 价格策略 word 文档 可自由复制编辑 DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIES All for-profit organizations and many nonprofit organizations set prices on their goods or services.Whether the price is called rent(for an apartment),tuition(for education),fare(for travel),or interest(for borrowed money),the concept is the same.Throughout most of history,prices were set by negotiation between buyers and sellers.Setting one price for all buyers arose with the development of large-scale retailing at the end of the nineteenth century,when Woolworths and other stores followed a“strictly one-price policy”because they carried so many items and had so many employees.Now,100 years later,technology is taking us back to an era of negotiated pricing.The Internet,corporate networks,and wireless setups are linking people,machines,and companies around the globe,connecting sellers and buyers as never before.Web sites like Compare.Net and PriceS allow buyers to compare products and prices quickly and easily.On-line auction sites like eB and O make it easy for buyers and sellers to negotiate prices on thousands of items.At the same time,new tech-nologies are allowing sellers to collect detailed data about customers buying habits,preferenceseven spending limitsso they can tailor their products and prices.1 In the entire marketing mix,price is the one element that produces revenue;the others produce costs.Price is also one of the most flexible elements:It can be changed quickly,unlike product features and channel commitments.Although price competi-tion is a major problem facing companies,many do not handle pricing well.The most common mistakes are these:Pricing is too cost-oriented;price is not revised often word 文档 可自由复制编辑 enough to capitalize on market changes;price is set independent of the rest of the marketing mix rather than as an intrinsic element of market-positioning strategy;and price is not varied enough for different product items,market segments,and purchase occasions.215 Designing Pricing Strategies and Programs We will address the following questions:How should a company price a new good or service?How should the price be adapted to meet varying circumstances and opportunities?When should the company initiate a price change,and how should it respond to competitive price changes?224 CHAPTER 12 DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS Value Pricing Value pricing is a method in which the company charges a fairly low price for a high-quality offering.Value pricing says that the price should represent a high-value offer to consumers.This is a major trend in the computer industry,which has shifted from charging top dollar for cutting-edge computers to offering basic computers at lower prices.For instance,Monorail Computer started selling PCs in 1996 for as little as$999 to woo price-sensitive buyers.Compaq and others quickly followed suit.More recently,eMachines began selling its PCs for less than$500 without a monitor,targeting the 55 percent of computerless households with annual incomes of$25,000 to$30,000.13 Value pricing is not a matter of simply setting lower prices on ones products compared to those of competitors.It is a matter of reengineering the companys oper-ations to become a low-cost producer without sacrificing quality,and lowering prices word 文档 可自由复制编辑 significantly to attract a large number of value-conscious customers.An important type of value pricing is everyday low pricing(EDLP),which takes place at the retail level.Retailers such as Wal-Mart and A use EDLP pricing,posting a constant,everyday low price with few or no temporary price discounts.These constant prices eliminate week-to-week price uncertainty and can be contrasted to the“high-low”pric-ing of promotion-oriented competitors.In high-low pricing,the retailer charges higher prices on an everyday basis but then runs frequent promotions in which prices are temporarily lowered below the EDLP level.14 Retailers adopt EDLP for a number of reasons,the most important of which is that constant sales and promotions are costly and erode consumer confidence in the credibility of everyday prices.Consumers also have less time and patience for such time-honored traditions as watching for specials and clipping coupons.Yet promo-tions are an excellent way to create excitement and draw shoppers.For this reason,EDLP is not a guarantee of success.As supermarkets face heightened competition from store rivals and alternative channels,many are drawing shoppers using a combi-nation of high-low and EDLP strategies,with increased advertising and promotions.15 Going-Rate Pricing In going-rate pricing,the firm bases its price largely on competitors prices.The firm might charge the same,more,or less than its major competitor(s)charges.In oligop-olistic industries that sell a commodity such as steel,paper,or fertilizer,firms normally charge the same price.The smaller firms“follow the leader,”changing their prices when the market leaders prices change rather than when their own demand or costs change.Some firms may charge a slight premium or slight discount,but they typically preserve the amount of difference.When costs are difficult to measure or competitive response is uncertain,firms feel that the going price represents a good solution,since word 文档 可自由复制编辑 it seems to reflect the industrys collective wisdom as to the price that will yield a fair return and not jeopardize industrial harmony.Sealed-Bid Pricing Competitive-oriented pricing is common when firms submit sealed bids for jobs.In bidding,each firm bases its price on expectations of how competitors will price rather than on a rigid relationship to the firms own costs or demand.Sealed-bid pricing involves two opposite pulls.The firm wants to win the contract which means submit-ting the lowest priceyet it cannot set its price below cost.To solve this dilemma,the company would estimate the profit and the probabil-ity of winning with each price bid.By multiplying the profit by the probability of win-ning the bid on the basis of that price,the company can calculate the expected profit for each bid.For a firm that makes many bids,this method is a way of playing the oddsSetting the Price 225 to achieve maximum profits in the long run.However,firms that bid only occasionally or that badly want to win certain contracts will not find it advantageous to use the expected-profit criterion.Step 6:Selecting the Final Price The previous pricing methods narrow the range from which the company selects its final price.In selecting that price,the company must consider additional factors:psy-chological pricing,the influence of other marketing-mix elements on price,company pricing policies,and the impact of price on other parties.Psychological Pricing Many consumers use price as an indicator of quality.Image pricing is especially effec-tive with ego-sensitive products such as perfumes and expensive cars.A$100 bottle of perfume might contain$10 worth of scent,but gift givers pay$100 to communicate their high regard for the receiver.Similarly,price and quality perceptions of cars inter-act:word 文档 可自由复制编辑 16 Higher-priced cars are perceived to possess high quality;higher-quality cars are likewise perceived to be higher priced than they actually are.In general,when infor-mation about true quality is unavailable,price acts as a signal of quality.When looking at a particular product,buyers carry in their minds a reference price formed by noticing current prices,past prices,or the buying context.Sellers often manipulate these reference prices.For example,a seller can situate its product among expensive products to imply that it belongs in the same class.Reference-price thinking is also created by stating a high manufacturers suggested price,by indicating that the product was priced much higher originally,or by pointing to a rivals high price.17 Often sellers set prices that end in an odd number,believing that customers who see a television priced at$299 instead of$300 will perceive the price as being in the$200 range rather than the$300 range.Another explanation is that odd endings con-vey the notion of a discount or bargain,which is why both and set prices ending in 99.But if a company wants a high-price image instead of a low-price image,it should avoid the odd-ending tactic.The Influence of Other Marketing-Mix Elements The final price must take into account the brands quality and advertising relative to competition.When Farris and Reibstein examined the relationships among relative price,relative quality,and relative advertising for 227 consumer businesses,they found that brands with average relative quality but high relative advertising budgets were able to charge premium prices.Consumers apparently were willing to pay higher prices for known products than for unknown products.They also found that brands with high relative quality and high relative advertising obtained the highest prices,while brands with low quality and advertising charged the lowest prices.Finally,the positive relationship between high prices and high advertising held most strongly in the later stages of the product life cycle for market leaders.18 Smart marketers there-word 文档 可自由复制编辑 fore ensure that their prices fit with other marketing-mix elements.word 文档 可自由复制编辑 定价战略 以营利为目的的组织和非营利组织的都对他们的 商品或服务制定价格。无论价格是被叫做叫出租（公寓），学费（为 教育），车费（旅行），或利息（借来的钱），其概念是一样的。在人类历史的大部分时间内，价格由买家和卖家之间的谈判。设定一个价格，对所有买家出现了与大型零售业的发展，在十九世纪结束时，伍尔沃斯和其他商店后“严格的价格政策”，因为他们进行这么多项目，有这么多的 员工。，100 年后的今天，技术是带我们回到谈判定价的时代。是连接人，机器和网络，企业网络和无线设置 世界各地的企业，连接买家和卖家是前所未有的。Web 站点，像 Compare.Net和 PriceS 让购房者比较产品和价格 迅速和容易。在线拍卖网站 eB 和 O等很容易让 买家和卖家商谈价格在数千个项目。同时，新技术的 word 文档 可自由复制编辑 nologies 让卖家详细的数据收集有关客户的购买习惯，喜好，甚至开支限额，使他们能够调整自己的产品和价格。1 在整个营销组合中，价格是一个因素，产生收入;其他生产成本。价格是最灵活的要素之一：它是可以改变的 很快，与产品功能和渠道的承诺。虽然价格竞争 tion是，许多公司不处理定价以及主要面对的问题。最 常见的错误是：价格是成本为导向的，价格也不是经常修改 足够的把握市场的变化;价格是独立的，其余的 营销组合的市场定位策略，而不是作为一种内在元素;价格不变化为不同的产品项目，细分市场，并购买足够 场合。215 设计定价 战略和 程序 我们将讨论以下问题：公司的价格应该怎样一个新的商品或服务？价格应如何调整，以适应不同的情况和机遇？当公司开始价格的变动，以及应当如何响应 有竞争力的价格变动？word 文档 可自由复制编辑 224 第 12 章设计的定价策略和计划 价值定价 价值定价方法，该公司收取相当低的价格为高 质量的产品。价值定价的价格应该代表一种高价值的要约 消费者的青睐。这是一个在计算机行业的大趋势，已经从 充电的尖端计算机提供基本的计算机在较低的顶部美元 价格。例如，单轨电脑于 1996 年开始销售个人电脑为 999 美元 来吸引对价格敏感的买家。康柏和其他国家也迅速跟进。最近，eMachines公司开始销售其低于 500 美元的电脑不带显示器，针对 55 家庭年收入 25,000元至 30,000元的 computerless。13 价值定价是不是简单地设置价格较低的产品 相比那些竞争对手的。这是一个问题的再造公司的操作 ations 成为一个低成本的生产商不牺牲质量的前提下，降低价格 显着，吸引了大量的价值的客户。一个重要的类型 价值定价是天天低价（EDLP），其中发生在零售层面。零售商如沃尔玛和亚马逊（A）使用 EDLP 定价，发布一个常数，天天低价，很少或没有临时价格折扣。这些不变价格计算 消除为期一周的周价格的不确定性和可对比的“高-低”的定价 ING 推广面向的竞争对手。高-低的价格，零售商收费高 在日常的基础，但价格运行频繁的促销价格 暂时降低低于 EDLP 级别。word 文档 可自由复制编辑 14 零售商采用 EDLP 有许多原因，其中最重要的是 不断的销售和促销活动的成本很高，而且削弱消费者的信心，信誉的日常价格。消费者也很少有时间和耐心等 历史悠久的传统特色菜和裁剪优惠券看。然而，促销活动，蒸发散是一个很好的方法来创造兴奋和绘制购物。出于这个原因，EDLP 是不是成功的保证。由于超市面临的竞争加剧 从商店的竞争对手和其他渠道，许多人都使用组合图购物 国家和高-低 EDLP 策略，广告和促销活动的增加。15 行市价格 在持续的利率定价，该公司根据其价格主要竞争对手的价格。该公司 可能会收取相同的，更多的，或低于其主要竞争对手（S）费用。在 oligop olistic行业销售的商品如钢铁，造纸，肥料，企业通常 收取相同的价格。小企业“跟随领袖”，改变他们的价格 当市场领导者的价格变化，而不是根据自己的需求或成本 更改。有些公司可能会收取的轻微溢价或轻微折让，但它们通常 保留的量的差异。当成本难以衡量或竞争 反应是不确定的，公司觉得价格是一个很好的解决方案，因为 这似乎反映了行业的集体智慧得到一个公平的价格，将 返回，而不是破坏劳资和谐。密封的投标价格 word 文档 可自由复制编辑 竞争导向定价法是常见的，当企业提交密封投标工作。在 投标，每个企业根据其竞争对手将如何定价，而价格的预期 比一个的刚性关系到企业自身的成本或需求。密封投标定价 涉及两个相反的拉。该公司希望赢得的合同，这意味着提交-婷最低的价格，但它不能设置其低于成本的价格。为了解决这一难题，该公司将估计的利润和概率 每个投标价格赢得性。双赢的概率乘以利润 该价格的基础上，宁出价，该公司可以计算出预期利润 每次出价。对于一个企业，使许多投标，此方法是一种打oddsSetting 价格 225 从长远来看，实现利润最大化。然而，企业出价只是偶尔 或很想赢得一定的合同将无法找到它有利的使用 预期利润的标准。第六步：选择最终价格 狭窄的范围内，该公司选择其以前的定价方法 最终价格。在选择的价格，公司必须考虑额外的因素：PSY-心理毛病定价，在价格上，公司的其他营销组合要素的影响 定价政策，与其他各方对价格的影响。心理定价 许多消费者使用价格作为质量的一个指标。图片价格尤其是短跑运动员，郑颖人与自我，敏感产品，如香水和昂贵的汽车。100 元一瓶 的香水可能包含价值 10 元的气味，但送礼者支付 100 美元的沟通 接收器的高度重视。同样，价格和质量的汽车间的看法 word 文档 可自由复制编辑 行动：16 个高价位的汽车被认为具有较高的质量，更高质量的汽车 同样被认为是比实际的高价位。在一般情况下，当信息 mation约了真实的品质是不可用的，价格作为质量的信号。当您在一个特定的产品，购房者携带在他们头脑中的参考价 注意到目前的价格，过去的价格，或购买上下文形成。卖家往往 操纵这些参考价格。例如，卖家可以位于其产品中 昂贵的产品，意味着它属于同一类。参考价格的思考 也说一个大制造商的建议零售价，创建时指出，该 要高得多最初，或指向对手的高价格，产品的价格。17 通常卖家设置的价格结尾的奇数，以为客户谁 看到电视售价为 299 美元，而不是 300 元的价格会觉察到在 至 200 美元而不是 300 美元左右。另一种解释是，奇怪的结局的 维伊的折扣价或议价的概念，这是，为什么都 和 设置价格，结束于 99。但是，如果一个公司要高，而不是低价格形象 价格形象，故应避免奇数结束的战术。其他营销组合要素的影响。最终的价格必须考虑到品牌的质量和广告相对于 竞争。当里斯和鲁宾斯坦研究之间的关系相对 227 消费业务的价格，相对质量，相对广告，他们发现 的平均相对质量，品牌，但相对较高的广告预算 word 文档 可自由复制编辑 能收取溢价。消费者显然愿意支付更高的 已知产品的价格比未知的产品。他们还发现，品牌 相对较高的质量和相对高的广告获得了最高的价格，而低质量的品牌和广告的最低价格收取。最后，该 持有最强烈的正相关关系高价格和高广告 市场的领导者在产品生命周期的后期阶段。18 聪明的商家有 因此确保其价格适合与其他营销组合元素。