同等学力英语申硕写作指南.doc

同等学力英语写作指南根据在职人员以研究生毕业同等学力申请硕士学位外国语课程水平统一考试大纲（第五版）的规定，要求考生具备一定的写作能力，在30分钟内按要求写出一篇不少于150词的短文，形式可以是按所给的提纲写短文，或描述图表，写内容提要、概述、读后感等。本题15分。一、评分标准写作评分标准主要围绕四个方面评判：1.内容要切题；2.能正确表达思想；3.意义连贯；4.无重大语法错误。批改作文时，主要从内容和语言两个方面进行综合评判。内容和语言是一个统一体。作文应表达题目所规定的内容，而内容要通过语言来表达。作文是否切题，是否充分表达思想，和语言上的错误是否造成理解上的障碍有密切的关系。下面就评分标准的四个方面分别加以说明。(一)内容切题在目前常见的作文题目中，内容切题一般包括两个方面。一是写作内容要围绕题目规定的话题展开。比如A Five day Week(五天工作制)，文章的内容应围绕五天工作制进行论述，与其无关的内容，当以跑题论处，但此种现象并不多见。其二，在有些作文题中还包括提纲如：Fire Accidents in Big Cities Outline：1.Present Situation 2.Causes 3.Measures 这种带提纲的作文题目不仅要求考生根据标题写作，而且要根据提纲规定的内容和范围展开各个段落，不能按自己的思路发挥。考生在这方面出的问题比较多。如1994年考研作文题是：On Making Friends(论交友)，其三段的提纲分别是：1.The need for friends 2.True Friendship 3.My principle in making friends。第三段的提纲要求考生围绕我交友的原则进行议论，然而有个别考生在段中这样写道：The former paragraph has shown my principle in making friends in some way. Furthermore, what I want to say is that one good friend is enough. 该考生把应放在第三段中论述的内容写在第二段中，第三段就没内容可写了。这类命题作文要求考生按规定和要求写作，不能按自己的想法随意更改，写上段作文的考生不仅第三段没有扣题，第二段也没有做到内容切题。一篇内容切题的作文应能既围绕题目，又能在各段扣准提纲，才真正符合内容切题的要求。下面这一段是另一学生的作文，都是第三段，内容切题，恰当地扣住我交友的原则的写作要求：When I choose friends, I do not care what work they do or what social background they are from, but I do notice those little things which reveal ones characters. I would make sure that we really care for each other, so that no matter how much time goes by without seeing each other, I know my friends will always be there, ready to help if I need them, And I know we are true friends indeed. (二)能正确地表达思想一篇好短文能使读者一目了然。文章的思路应清楚，逻辑性强，能准确表达作者的思想。请对比下面两段：Have you a bike? Taking a bike is a good way, most people think. But in university it seems not as good as other places. Bikes are possible to be stolen now and then. Having a bike isnt always good enough for us to buy one. 上段作者的思路紊乱不清，字里行间不仅有许多语病，而且也没能把思想表达清楚。读后仍不知作者在表达什么思想、观点，因而这样的段落只能得0分。请看下段：It is very convenient to use bikes in China. Bikes dont need fuel, nor a garage or a large parking lot. Bikes can go through narrow streets and their prices are low. So bikes are the most popular vehicles in China today. 上段的作者以其简单的词汇、简洁的语言、清楚的思路正确地表达了思想，使读者观后能即刻领会作者的思想。要能正确地表达思想，考生还应掌握一些写作技巧，如写好段落主题句，展开段落的方法，写好段尾句等。此外还应掌握一定的词汇量和习惯表达法。(三)意义连贯文章的层次要分明，条理要清楚，上下文之间、词与词、句与句之间要上下连贯，前后呼应，才能使文章结构严谨，思路清晰、有条理。下面这个段落是一篇文章的第三段。文章的标题是：Good Health；提纲是1.Importance of good health；2.Ways to keep fit；3.My own practice。根据第三段的提纲我的做法，一个考生这样写：I dont eat meat much. Every morning I take the long run and in my spare time I like playing tennis and volleyball. In this way I keep good health and lead a happy life. 上段基本切题，包括提纲要点，表达也基本清楚，但是表达不够连贯。第一句话让人读起来感觉有些突然，分析第一句，作者没有把意思表达清楚，作者我吃肉不多一定含有这样的意思：我饮食素淡，吃蔬菜水果多，吃肉少。如果能把这层意思写出来，文章的连贯性也就体现出来了。作者的第二句是从体育锻炼方面来表明自己是如何保持健康的，这应是本段中的又一层意思，在这里如能加一个过渡词，会使文章过渡自然流畅。请看下面经过修改的段落：As for me(1),I enjoy a good health as I keep a simple diet with more vegetables, fruit and less meat. Moreover, I do some exercises whenever I have time such as long distance running, playing tennis or volleyball. As a result(2),I have been a top student all through the four years in the university. So good health is important to everyone(3). (1)发挥了承上启下的作用，没有这样一个介词短语，从第二段过渡到第三段就会显得生硬一些。(2)也起到了连贯作用，在上述两方面保持健康的方法介绍完后，应该进一步写出所产生的结果，这结果就是对全段的总结概括。(3)对文章的标题及开头起了首尾呼应的作用。(四)无重大语法错误重大语法错误一般指时态不一致、主语谓语单复数形式不一致、用词不当等，这些问题的存在说明考生在平时的英语学习中很少练习写作，有人甚至从没写过作文，因而出现各种各样语法错误是可以理解的。考生应在考前多进行这方面的训练，一些语法错误在实践中是可以纠正过来的。下面举几例常见错误。病句及其分析：1.So college provide the best condition for students. 此句的主谓语不一致。因为句子的意思是泛指大学为学生提供了最好的学习环境，这里的主语college应变为复数。这类错误极为常见。2.Going to college does not followed that Well have a splendid future. 此句的主语是现在分词短语，全句的意思是：上大学并不表示我们的未来就一定会光辉灿烂。does not后应跟动词原型follow。3.Second, have a part time job for poor student is a good way to help reduce his family burden. 此句中有两处错误。have a part time job不能直接作主语，可以改为不定式作主语to have a part time job,或者动名词作主语having a part time job。第二处错误是poor student。普通名词前应有冠词a或the,如前面没有冠词，名词应是复数形式。在这里可选用不定冠词，a poor student,或者poor students。在此句中为了与后半句中的his呼应将其改为a poor student为好。4.In recent years, fake goods have been discovered more and more in the market. 第四句是中文式的英文，这是考生作文中的常见错误。按照英语的习惯可改为More and more fake goods have been discovered in the market in recent years. 5.The first hand I think is that law must be passed to prevent fake goods from being produced. 第五句中的The first hand是错的，应改为On the one hand；I think是插入成分，在写作中应尽量不使用这样的插入成分；law前应有冠词，此句经修改后是：On the one hand,a law must be passed to prevent fake goods from being produced. 二、写作技巧一篇好的短文应该观点明确，思路清晰，论述有力、准确，语言正确，文字简洁、流畅、连贯，结构严谨。短文是由段落组成，因此写好段落是写好短文的关键。段落的组成分为三部分，主题句(Topic Sentence),推展句(Development Sentences)和结论句(Concluding Sentence)。下面分别就这三方面进行详解。(一)主题句1.主题句的作用主题句是全段的核心句，读者通过主题句能了解段落的中心思想。一个好的主题句还能限制话题所谈论的范围，表明段落展开的方向及方法。在英语文章中，围绕主题句展开的段落很多。下面两段摘自1995年的阅读试题。A job applicant has the responsibility for ascertaining certain types of information prior to the interview. First, the applicant should know what kind of job he wants and how that job relates to his career objective. It is important that the applicant be able to state his reasons for wishing to work for a particular company. Second, the applicant should seek as much information as possible concerning the company. Relevant information for the applicant to locate includes such items as the location of the home and regional offices, the financial status of the company, plans for expansion, and company philosophy. Information about most major corporations is available in reference books and periodicals. 上段第一句是段落的主题句，句子的大意是：申请工作的人在接受面试前有责任了解某些方面的信息。主题句中的关键词是ascertaining certain types of information。紧接着，文章围绕主题句从两方面展开，论述了申请人应了解两类信息。If Europeans thought a drought was something that happened only in Africa, they know better now. After four years of below normal rainfall (in some cases only 10 percent of the annual average), vast areas of France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Britain and Ireland are dry and barren .Water is so low in the canals of northern France that waterway traffic is forbidden except on weekends. Oyster growers in Britain report a 30 percent drop in production because of the loss of fresh water in local rivers necessary for oyster breeding. In southeastern England, the rolling green hills of Kent have turned so brown that officials have been weighing plans to pipe in water from wales. In Portugal, farmers in the southern Alentejo region have held prayer meetings for rain-so far, in vain. 上段中第二句是主题句，它点明了全段的中心思想，即：四年来，法国、西班牙、葡萄牙、比利时，英国及爱尔兰的降雨量低于常年，这些国家的广大地区都严重缺水。下面的各句都是围绕这一主题展开的。从上面两段中我们可以看到英语的段落只能有一个中心思想，如要再论述其他与该段中心思想无关的内容应另起一段。2.主题句的位置主题句的位置可以在段首：Londons weather is very strange .It can rain several times a day; each time the rain may come suddenly after the sun is shining brightly. The air is damp(潮湿的)and chill(冷的)right through July. On one March afternoon on Hampton Heath last year it rained three times, there was one hail(冰雹)storm, and the sun shone brilliantly-all this within two hours time. It is not unusual to see men and women rushing down the street on a sunny morning with umbrellas on their arms. No one knows what the next few moments will bring. 主题句的位置可以在段落中间：Just as I settle down to read or watch television, he demands that I play with him. If I get a telephone call, he screams in the background or knocks something over. I always have to hang up to find out whats wrong with him, Babysitting with my little brother is no fun. He refuses to let me eat a snack(快餐)in peace. Usually he wants half of whatever I have to eat. Then, when he finally grows tired, it takes about an hour for him to fall asleep. 主题句的位置可以在段尾：Doctors are of the opinion that most people cannot live beyond 100 years, but a growing number of scientists believe that the aging process can be controlled. There are more than 12 000 Americans over 100 years old, and their numbers are increasing each year. Dr James Langley of Chicago claims that, theoretically and under ideal(理想的)conditions, animals, including man, can live six times longer than their normal period of growth. A persons period of growth lasts about 25 years. If Dr. Langleys theory is accurate(准确的), future generations can expect a life span(寿命)of 150 years . 主题句的位置可在段首段尾同时出现：Good manners are important in all countries, but ways of expressing good manners are different from country to country .Americans eat with knives and forks(叉)；Japanese eat with chopsticks(筷子).Americans say Hi when they meet; Japanese bow. Many American men open doors for women; Japanese men do not. On the surface, it appears that good manners in America are not good manners in Japan, and in a way this is true. But in any country, the only manners that are important are those involving one persons behavior toward another person. In all countries it is good manners to behave considerately toward others and bad manners not to. It is only the way of behaving politely that differs from country to country. (以上4段摘自大学英语精读课本) 主题句出现在段落首或尾完全由写作需要而定。一般地说来，写这样100多词的小短文把主题句放在段首更有利于考生扣准中心思想展开论述。3.怎样写好主题句主题句在段落中有着举足轻重的作用。因此写好主题句是写好段落的关键。在构思主题句时要注意以下三个方面：(1)主题句首先应是一个完整的句子，任何词组或修饰成分都不能作主题句。如：More burdens,就不是一个完整的句子。Reading is thought to be a kind of conversation between the reader and the text，则是一个比较好的主题句。(2)主题句不应太笼统概括。如：William Shakespeare is great这句话很笼统，对段落如何展开没有指导和限定作用，因而不能作主题句。如改为：William Shakespeare wrote several historic plays,则下文就能围绕莎氏的历史剧展开论述了。(3)主题句不能太具体。如：The dictionary is small，句子如果太琐碎具体就失去进一步展开的意义了。(4)各段的主题句应相互照应。在以No Smoking为题的作文中，各段的主题句分别是：Smoking is harmful. Smoking does not only harm the smokers but also people around them. Therefore, smoking is a bad habit. 第二段的主题句用not only，but also连接词语沟通了上下两段的内容。第三段的Therefore又起了承上启下的作用，使全篇融为一体。(二)段落的展开展开段落的方法有很多种，在这里我们仅介绍几种常用方法。1.依据归纳法或演绎法进行论述依据归纳法展开段落是指在段落中先引用具体事实或因由进行阐述或论说，进而得出结论。演绎法则是由一般推出特殊情况的结论。下面这一段落是用归纳法展开的段落。最后一句是结论，也是主题句。And that is exactly what reading a book should be：a conversation between you and the author. Presumably, he knows more about the subject than you do; naturally, you will have the proper humility as you approach him. But dont let anybody tell you that a reader is supposed to be solely on the receiving end. Understanding is a two way operation; learning doesnt consist in being an empty receptacle. The learner has to question himself and the teacher. He even has to argue with the teacher, once he understands what the teacher is saying. And marking a book is literally an expression of your differences, or agreements of opinion, with the author. 2.依据重要性展开段落依据思想或事实或理由的重要性的先后次序进行论述，可以从次要至重要，也可以从重要至次重要。下面段落是以次重要至重要的方法进行论述的。作者首先指出(医生)对病人撒谎不仅对医生本人不好，也会伤害同事，进而会有损于整个医疗事业。Lies also do harm to those who tell them: harm to their integrity and, in the long run, to their credibility. Lies hurt their colleagues as well. The suspicion of deceit undercuts the work of the many doctors who are scrupulously honest with their patients; it contributes to the spiral of lawsuits and of defensive medicine, and thus it injures, in turn, the entire medical profession. 3.依据比较和对比法进行论述一般地说，比较是指对事物的相同方面进行比较；对比是指对比事物的差异或不同方面。下面两段就采用了对比方法。这两段将口头英语与书面英语的不同方面作了比较，两段的观点都一一对应，比如：Oral English is informal while written English is comparatively formal就是一对观点的对比。另外，两段之间用unlike oral English承接，既让段落过渡自然，又使对比强烈。First of all, oral English is usually considered informal. So no matter how poor ones language is and how strange and foreign ones pronunciation is, it seems insignificant if only one can make his audience understood. Secondly, as to the audience, they are only interested in grasping the meaning, not actually mind, or even hardly notice how many grammatical mistakes the speaker makes. Furthermore, oral English is also regarded adaptable. When we cannot express something precisely, we may give the explanation of it instead, or correct the mistakes on the spot. So oral English gives less chances of misunderstanding. Unlike oral English, written English is comparatively formal. It requires good spelling and perfect grammar. Poor spelling and too many grammatical mistakes will put readers in a puzzling difficulty. They would be confused about what writers are getting at. In addition, once the words are printed on the paper and handed to whoever the person concerned, writers can no longer make any changes. To avoid this, one has to pay much attention to spelling, practise grammar and write clearly-constructed paragraphs. As a result it will take longer time and much more efforts to communicate in written English than in oral English. 4.依据时间的先后进行论述依据时间的先后次序展开段落，就是完全按照事物实际发展的时间先后进行论述。如：下面两段就是以时间为序介绍鹿的生长过程。随着夏季一天天过去，又随着秋去冬来，鹿的新陈代谢也随着季节的推移而变化。As the summer progresses and the fawns grow, they become less dependent on their mothers milk and more dependent on growing plants as food sources. The adult males spend the summer growing antlers and getting fat. Both males and females continue to eat high quality food in the fall in groups to deposit body fat for the winter. In the case of does and fawns, a great deal of energy is expended either in milk production or in growing, and fat is not accumulated as quickly as it is in full grown males. Fat reserves are like bank accounts to be drawn on in the winter when food supplies are limited and sometimes difficult to reach because of deep snow. As fall turns into winter, other changes take place. Fawns lose their spotted coat. Hair on all the deer becomes darker and thicker. The change in the hair coats is usually complete by September and maximum hair depths are reached by November or December when winter becomes cold. 5.依据空间顺序展开段落依据空间的次序进行论述应是有序地由远至近或由近至远，由上至下或由下至上对事物进行描写。下面的例子描写了一幅美丽宁静的夜景。作者先描写空中的月亮，再随洒向大地的月光写到湖四周随风摇曳的树枝，又由青蛙的叫声把读者引到了湖的中央，最后结尾讲：这是一个多么迷人的夜晚。这个段落文字简洁流畅，有序地按空间顺序由上写到下，由外写到里。读者可在平时的练习中注意模仿。It is a beautiful and quiet night. The moon is like a disc hanging on the dark sky, which casts its light on everything. Around the lake are some trees, their slender leaves billowing in the gentle wind. There must be some frogs in the middle of the lake, whose endless singing can be heard clearly. What an attractive night! (三)写好结尾句段落结尾或文章的结尾的方法很多，比如在文章的结论段提出问题，让读者自己去解答；引用谚语或名人名言进一步印证作者的观点；或将前面所讲的内容重点摘述等。在这里仅介绍几种适合写短文结尾的常用方法。1.回答段落主题句中暗示的问题如下面段落的第一句作为主题句阐明了做摘要的全过程显示(一个人)的决策能力。在文章的结尾作者以答复的口气作结论说：根据你在做笔记时所投入的时间和精力，你做摘要的效率会得到相应的提高。The whole process of summarizing implies an ability to make decisions. You have to decide what the authors plan is, how the material has been organized, what the key ideas are, and what material is used merely as example. You will not find the technique of summarizing easy at first because it requires so many decisions. But your efficiency in making summaries, as well as your general reading efficiency, will increase in proportion to the time and effort you spend on perfecting your note-taking technique. 2.呼应主题句中的关键词，使用关键词的同义词重申段落的中心思想下面段落