英语语言学11Chapter-11-teaching.ppt

Chapter 11 Linguistics and Language Teaching1n nApplied linguisticsn nTheoretical views of language explicitly or Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching.adopted in language teaching.n nLinguistics,as the science of language,should be Linguistics,as the science of language,should be of fundamental importance for teachers of of fundamental importance for teachers of language.language.2n nAccording to Jo McDonough,a teacher who is able to explain some linguistic features would have a stronger position than one who handles the argument by using authority “its like that”,“its an exception”,or“its less formal”.31.Linguistics and language learning n nMany language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories.n nIn fact,knowledge in In fact,knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of linguistics lies at the root of understanding what understanding what language learners can learnlanguage learners can learn,how they actually learn and how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately.what they learn ultimately.4n nAs Rod Ellis points out,“whereas much of the earlier work focused on the linguistic and,in particular,the grammatical-properties of learner language and was psycholinguistic in orientation,later work has also attended to the pragmatic aspects of learner language and,increasingly,has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective.5n nAlthough certain language learners(e.g.,advanced learners and students majoring a foreign language)certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguistics,it is not sensible to recommend the majority of language learners to study linguistics while they are still struggling with the task of learning the language itself.61.1 Grammarn nAs a compromise between theAs a compromise between the“purely form-purely form-focused approaches”and the“purely meaning-focused approaches”and the“purely meaning-focused”approachesfocused”approaches,a recent movement called a recent movement called focus on formfocus on form seems to take a more balanced seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning.view on the role of grammar in language learning.n nDo we teach grammar?n nHow do we teach grammar?7Focus on Formn nAlthough language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented,it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally.8n nFocus on form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code featuresby the teacher and/or one or more studentstriggered by perceived problems with comprehension or production.9Universal Grammarn nTwo variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar(UG)and the complexity of language structures.n nAccording to the advocates of focus on form,if an L2 structure is part of UG,the amenability is high;otherwise,the amenability is low.10n nThe problem is that no one knows for sure what exactly is part of UG.It is here that the study of linguistics comes into play.n nThe study of UG,which is often considered as the theory for the sake of theory,is now needed in language learning research in the most practical sense.11n nThe study of UG has attracted considerable attention from many second language acquisition researchers because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways.n nFor exampleFor example,it can provide explanations for it can provide explanations for developmental sequences and language transfer.developmental sequences and language transfer.12Structural complexityn nIt can be assumed that less complex structures have higher amenability,but complexity is hard to define.n nFormally simple structures can be functionally complex and formally complex items are not necessarily functionally complex.n nAgain we resort to linguistics in order to have a better understanding of the complexity of language structures.13Grammar-based teachingn nGrammar-translation methodn nAudiolingual methodn nSituational language teaching141.2 Inputn nLanguage learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language.n nThis input may come in written or spoken form.n nIn the case of spoken input,it may occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse.15n nViews diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language learners.n nAuthentic input Authentic input n nComprehensible input(Comprehensible input(KrashenKrashen):i+1):i+1n nPremodifiedPremodified input inputn nInteractively modified input:tends to do Interactively modified input:tends to do a better joba better job16Input-based teachingn nDirect methodn nNatural approachn nTotal physical responsen nCommunicative approachn nCommunity language learning(CLL)n nSuggestopedian nSilent way17Suggestopedia:Learn While You Sleep!n nThe Bulgarian physician Georgi Lozanov devised a language learning method called Suggestopedia.18Caleb Gattegnos Silent Way19n nThis is a chart containing a certain number of different coloured rectangles;each colour corresponds to a sound in the language.20n nThe Fidel is a set of charts presenting all the possible spellings of each sound of the language.21n nOne of the 12 word charts on which the functional words of the language are printed in color.22http:/ Interlanguageoutput n nThe type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.n nIt is often understood as a language system It is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learners between the target language and the learners native language.native language.2425n nInterlanguage is a dynamic language system,which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level.n nCan be done in two ways:n ninvestigating the psychologicalinvestigating the psychological,biological or biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage;production of interlanguage;n ninvestigating the linguistic features of investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage.interlanguage.26n nConcerning the linguistic features of interlanguage,the following questions can be asked:n nLinguisticallyLinguistically,how is interlanguage in general how is interlanguage in general different from the target language or the native different from the target language or the native language?language?n nIn what way is lower level interlanguage different In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher level interlanguage?from higher level interlanguage?n nHow is the interlanguage system used to convey How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning?meaning?27Constructivism n nLanguage(or any knowledge)is socially constructed.n nLearners learn language by cooperating,negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks.n nIn other wordsIn other words,they construct language in they construct language in certain social and cultural contexts.certain social and cultural contexts.282.Linguistics and Language Teachingn nLinguistics theories influence our general orientation in approaches to language teaching.n nLinguistic knowledge helps Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to better explain the teachers to better explain the specific language items they specific language items they teach.teach.292.1 Discourse-based viewn nLinguistic patterns exist across stretches of text.n nThese patterns of language extend beyond the These patterns of language extend beyond the words,clauses and sentences,which have been words,clauses and sentences,which have been the traditional concern of much language the traditional concern of much language teaching.teaching.n nFocuses on complete spoken and written texts Focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates.such language operates.n nAccordingly,it aims at developing discourse Accordingly,it aims at developing discourse competence,similar to the well-known concept competence,similar to the well-known concept of of communicative competencecommunicative competence.30Communicative competencen nDell Hymes n nWhat a learners knows about how a What a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situations language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate for effective and appropriate munication.n nIncludes knowledge of the grammar and Includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary,knowledge of rules of vocabulary,knowledge of rules of speaking,knowledge of how to use and speaking,knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions,and knowledge of and social conventions,and knowledge of how to use language appropriately.how to use language appropriately.31n nIt is believed that language learning will successfully take place when language learners know how and when to use the language in various settings and when they have successfully cognized various forms of competence such as grammatical competence(lexis,morphology,syntax and phonology)and pragmatic competence(e.g.,speech acts).32n nIn the case of foreign/second language learning,language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions,which are thought to help them acquire the target language.n nCommunicative Language Teaching(CLT)Communicative Language Teaching(CLT)and and Task-based Language Teaching(TBLT)Task-based Language Teaching(TBLT)are the are the best known examples of such a theory.best known examples of such a theory.n nIn the CLT or TBLT classroom,students are In the CLT or TBLT classroom,students are expected to learn by performing tasks.expected to learn by performing tasks.33Task-basedn nTwo broad types of tasks:real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks.n nA real-world task is very close to something we A real-world task is very close to something we do in daily life or work.do in daily life or work.n nPedagogical tasks are those activities that Pedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the classroom but that may not students do in the classroom but that may not take place in real life.(information gap)take place in real life.(information gap)34Drawbacks n nOveremphasizes the role of external factors in the process of language acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning processes.n nSimilar to the behavioristic view of language acquisition in that environmental factors and input are at the very center in attempting to explicate the acquisition process.n nOverstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a language,and hence fails to notice universal principles that guide language acquisition.352.2 Universal Grammar(UG)n nNoam Chomskyn nA native speaker possesses a kind of A native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic competence.linguistic competence.n nThe child is born with knowledge of The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic universals.some linguistic universals.n nWhile acquiring his mother tongue,he While acquiring his mother tongue,he compares his innate language system compares his innate language system with that of his native language and with that of his native language and modifies his grammar.modifies his grammar.36n nInput is poor and deficient in two ways.n nIt is“degenerate”because it is damaged by It isdegenerate”because it is damaged by performance features such as slips,hesitations or performance features such as slips,hesitations or false starts.Accordingly,the input is not an false starts.Accordingly,the input is not an adequate base for language learning.adequate base for language learning.n nIt is devoid of grammar corrections.It does not It is devoid of grammar corrections.It does not normally contain“negative evidence”,the normally contain“negative evidence”,the knowledge from which the learner could exercise knowledge from which the learner could exercise what is“not”possible in a given language.what is“not”possible in a given language.37n nVivian Cook wrote a whole book to Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to account for second language account for second language acquisition based on Chomskys acquisition based on Chomskys linguistic theory.linguistic theory.n nAlthough UG was not originally proposed to account for second language acquisition,many researchers are working on its implication for language learning and teaching.38Drawbacks n nUGs primary aim is to account for how language works,not acquisition.n nUG is only concerned with the core grammar of language(syntax).n nThe communication function is discarded in UG.n nChomsky is concerned only with competence,there can be little likelihood of SLA researchers carrying out empirical research.393.Syllabus Designn nA bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice.n nTranslates theoretical understanding Translates theoretical understanding of language teaching and sets up an of language teaching and sets up an operable framework for language operable framework for language teaching.teaching.n nThe most important part of syllabus The most important part of syllabus design is selecting and sequencing design is selecting and sequencing language items.language items.403.1 Types of syllabusn nStructuraln nSituationaln nFunctional/notionaln nCommunicativen nTask-basedn nContent-based413.2 Components of a syllabusn nAims/goalsn nObjectives/targets/requirementsn nNon-language outcomes:affect cultivation(confidence,motivation,interest,etc.)n nLearning strategies,thinking skills,interpersonal skills,etc.n nImplementation:approaches,methods,principles,suggestions,textbooks,etc.n nAssessment/evaluation423.3 Current trendsn nCo-existence of the old and the newn nEmphasis on the learning Emphasis on the learning processprocessn nInclusion of non-linguistic Inclusion of non-linguistic objectivesobjectivesn nEmergence of the multi-Emergence of the multi-syllabussyllabus434.Contrastive Analysisn nA way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not.n nIts goal is to predict what areas will be easy to Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what will be difficult.learn and what will be difficult.n nAssociated in its early days with behaviorism Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism.and structuralism.444.1 Main assumptionsn nLanguage is a habit and LL involves establishment of a new set of habits.n nL1 interferes with L2.L1 interferes with L2.n nErrors in L2 can be accounted for by differences Errors in L2 can be accounted for by differences between L1 and L2.b