CRITICAL-THINKING(ppt文档).ppt

CRITICAL THINKINGELEMENTS OF REASONINGPAULS ELEMENTS OF REASONINGn n1.PURPOSEn n2.QUESTIONn n3.INFORMATIONn n4.INFERENCESn n5.CONCEPTSn n6.ASSUMPTIONSn n7.IMPLICATIONSn n8.POINT(S)OF VIEWPURPOSEALL REASONING HAS A PURPOSEDISTINGUISH YOUR PURPOSE FROM RELATED PURPOSESCheck periodically to be sure you are still on target.Choose significant and realistic purposes.QUESTIONn nAll reasoning is an attempt to figure something out,to settle some QUESTION,solve some PROBLEM.-State the question at issue clearly and precisely.-Express the question in several ways to clarify its meaning and scope.EXAMPLESLogic of a literature coursePurposeTo think the way a literary reader thinks about his of her life.Question How can I think in deep literary terms about stories and about my life in terms of these stories?ASSUMPTIONSn nAll reasoning is based on ASSUMPTIONS.-Clearly identify your assumptions and determine whether they are justifiable.Consider how your assumptions are shaping your point of view.INFORMATIONn nRestrict your claims to those supported by the data you have.n nSearch for information that opposes your position as well as information that supports it.n nMake sure that all information used is clear,accurate and relevant to the issue.n nMake sure you have gathered sufficient information.INFERENCESn nAll reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data.n nInfer only what the evidence implies.n nCheck inferences for their consistency with each other.n nIdentify assumptions that lead you to your inferences.EXAMPLESMy boss criticised me.(Information)He doesnt like me.(Inference)Whenever people criticise me,it means that they dont like me.(Assumption)CONCEPTSn nAll reasoning is expressed through,and shaped by,CONCEPTS.n nIdentify key concepts and explain them clearly.n nConsider alternative concepts or alternative definitions of concepts.EXAMPLESn nThe logic of GeologyConcepts-The universe-Gravity-Electromagnetism-Nuclear forces-Quantum theoryPOINT OF VIEWn nAll reasoning is done from some point of view.n nIdentify your point of view.n nSeek other points of view and identify their strengths as well as weaknesses.n nStrive to be fair-minded in evaluating all points of view.EXAMPLESn nThe logic of Science-Scientists look at the physical world and see phenomena best understood through careful observation and systematic study.They see scientific study as vital to understanding the physical world and replacing myth with scientific knowledge.IMPLICATIONSn nAll reasoning leads somewhere or has IMPLICATIONS and CONSEQUENCES.n nTrace the implications and consequences that follow from your reasoning.n nSearch for negative as well as positive implications.n nConsider all possible consequences.EXAMPLESn nThe logic of Sciencen nMany important implications and consequences have resulted from scientific thinking,some of which have vastly improved the quality of life on earth,others of which have resulted in decreased quality of life.One important positive implication is that it enables us to replace mythological thinking with theories and principles based in scientific fact.ExerciseUsing the elements of reasoning,critically analyse the excerpt from On Civil Disobedience.On Civil DisobedienceAn analysis of eight basic structuresn nPurposen nTo convince the reader that governments should To convince the reader that governments should serve the people and that the people need to hold serve the people and that the people need to hold the government accountable for doing so,even if the government accountable for doing so,even if this means that the people have to break the law to this means that the people have to break the law to bring about justice.bring about justice.Key Questions-11.1.What is the primary responsibility of government?2.2.How do governments tend to function,with respect to its people?3.3.How are people obligated to behave towards the government?4.4.How are governments obligated to behave towards the people?Key Questions-25.5.Is it possible to have a government wherein conscience is the guiding concept instead of vested interest?6.6.How can the people best hold the government accountable to the people?Information-11.1.Information used is not stated but implied.2.If no information is provided by the author,one would need to identify examples of government behaviour in general to see if this is a well-reasoned argument.Information-23.3.To determine the extent to which a particular To determine the extent to which a particular government functions ethically or unethically,examine government functions ethically or unethically,examine cases of government decisions and actions,as well as cases of government decisions and actions,as well as its laws,policies,and procedures,and the ethical its laws,policies,and procedures,and the ethical implications of its actions.implications of its actions.4.4.Information about the problems inherent in standing Information about the problems inherent in standing armies is also being used in this argument.armies is also being used in this argument.Inferences-11.1.The best government is the government that grants the greatest number of liberties and rights for its people.2.Ideally,there would be no government and this is what people will have when they think well enough to eliminate government.Inferences-23.3.Most governments typically are not useful and beneficial to people,and all governments sometimes fail to serve the people.4.People within the government are likely to abuse their power before the people even benefit from the government they put into power.Conceptsn nKey Concept Civil Disobediencen nEthical obligationn nGovernmentn nThe distinction between behaving in accordance with the law versus behaving in accordance with what is right.Assumptions-11.1.If enough people break the law to stop injustice,the If enough people break the law to stop injustice,the government will be forced to reconsider and government will be forced to reconsider and reformulate the law.reformulate the law.2.2.People who understand ethics and behave in People who understand ethics and behave in accordance with what is ethically right in a situation accordance with what is ethically right in a situation do not need to be governed.do not need to be governed.3.3.At this time in history,people did not fully At this time in history,people did not fully understand ethics,which is why they needed a understand ethics,which is why they needed a government.government.Assumptions-24.4.People are theoretically capable of understanding ethics and living ethical lives.5.5.Any and all forms of government are inherently unethical to some extent.6.People have a right to do what they think is ethically right in a situation.Implications-11.1.People will conceptualise government very differently than most people now conceptualise it with a responsibility to serve the people,to serve the needs and desires of the people above any other goal.2.People will take more responsibility for analysing and assessing laws to see if they result in just treatment for people.Implications-23.3.When people identify unjust laws,or laws that lead to injustice,they may challenge the law,or refuse to abide by it.4.People will not assume that the government is concerned with their best interest.Points of View1.1.Looking at governments as ethically responsible for serving the good of the people,but often causing injustices.2.People responsible for challenging unjust laws.Evaluating argumentsn nIdentify the argumentn nDo you think the argument is Valid or Invalid?n nExemplification(provide examples that support or do not support the view)n nEvaluation:n nChallenge the assumptions(if possible)Challenge the assumptions(if possible)n nCounter argumentsCounter argumentsn nJustify your stand Justify your stand n nImplicationsImplicationsArgument 1n nAll governments tend to abuse power,generate laws,and make decisions that unduly restrict peoples freedom.n nExample Example U.S./Mexican War(support)U.S./Mexican War(support)n nThe voters never agreed the war,but it was forced on the The voters never agreed the war,but it was forced on the citizenry by politicians and business people who were citizenry by politicians and business people who were greedy for more land,more power,and more profits.greedy for more land,more power,and more profits.Argument-1n nOpposing viewpointOpposing viewpointn nNot ALL governments abuse power.Not ALL governments abuse power.n nThere are many reasons why governments abuse their power There are many reasons why governments abuse their power and restrict peopleand restrict people s freedom.s freedom.n nExamplesExamples:n nSingapore(restricts peopleSingapore(restricts people s freedom)s freedom)a necessary measure a necessary measure to preserve the social fabric.to preserve the social fabric.n nWhen governments abuse their abuse,it should not be seen When governments abuse their abuse,it should not be seen as an act the lack of integrity on the part of the institution;as an act the lack of integrity on the part of the institution;rather it should reflect the character of the people who rather it should reflect the character of the people who represent the government.represent the government.n nExample:Suharto in Indonesia(corrupt practices)Example:Suharto in Indonesia(corrupt practices)Argument-1n nAssumption n nSuch situations will not occur without governments.Such situations will not occur without governments.n nBut more serious problems will occur without a higher authority.(Implications)Argument 2n nSince(argument 1),people are best served by governments that govern as little as possible.n nAssumptionsn nThe concept of government cannot work.The concept of government cannot work.n nGovernments cannot serve the interests of the Governments cannot serve the interests of the people.people.n nFreedom should be the most important interest.Freedom should be the most important interest.n nRemoving the governments will solve the problems Removing the governments will solve the problems in argument 1.in argument 1.Argument-2n nExample:(Invalid)n nIraq War Iraq War No government No government anarchy anarchyn nThe government can act as a regulatory body and ensure fair practices.n nSelf-interests competition for resources(by force)n nWhat is wrong is not the concept of government,but the lack of checks and balances to make sure the government is not corrupt.Argument-2n nWhat is needed is an educated citizenry to choose the What is needed is an educated citizenry to choose the best people to govern.best people to govern.n nIt It s difficult to decide how much to govern or how s difficult to decide how much to govern or how much not to govern.much not to govern.n nWhich areasWhich areas?n nBusiness(To what extent should the government be Business(To what extent should the government be involved?)involved?)n nInternational relations(George BushInternational relations(George Bush s decide to attack Iraq?)s decide to attack Iraq?)n nSocial aspect(gay marriages?Censorship?Implications?)Social aspect(gay marriages?Censorship?Implications?)Argument-3n nThe best government is the government that grants the greatest number of liberties and rights for the people.n nWhat does best mean?n nExamples:n nThe democratic states such as the United States and The United KingdomArgument-3n nAre the governments of these states the best?n nGeorge W.Bush George W.Bush n nEconomic problems,unemployment,wars,etc.Economic problems,unemployment,wars,etc.n nSocial welfare concerns?Social welfare concerns?n nNational security and personal safety?National security and personal safety?n nQuality of life?Quality of life?Argument-3n nGovernments which do not grant many rights to their citizensn nCommunist states N.Korea,Chinan nOthers Hitlers Nazi Germany and Mussolini Fascist Italyn nFreedom of expression n nCensorship of pressn nOppressionArgument-4n nIt is much more important for people to develop a respect for and understanding of what is right than to uncritically adhere to laws(which may be unjust).The only thing that people are obligated to do what they think is right,not what the law says is right.Argument 4 n nInvalidn nAssumptionn nPeople understand ethics,logical and rational and People understand ethics,logical and rational and can distinguish it from cultural norms and values.can distinguish it from cultural norms and values.n nPeople are heavily influenced by their own cultures,religions and customs.Argument-4n nExamples:n nHitlerHitler s anti-semitist sentiments(genocide)s anti-semitist sentiments(genocide)n nPol PotPol Pot s regimes regimen nRwanda(Hutus and Tutsis)Rwanda(Hutus and Tutsis)n nTamils and Sinhalese in Sri LankaTamils and Sinhalese in Sri Lankan nNorther IrelandNorther Irelandn nTerrorists(Al-Qaeda)Terrorists(Al-Qaeda)Argument-4n nThese examples highlight the importance of law in creating order.n nPossible opposing viewpoint:n nIt is becoming increasingly important for people,especially educated ones to understand and appreciate the rationale of new policies so as to ensure conformity.