中西文化之鉴期末复习.doc

Cross-cultural Communication

l What is culture？
1. a system of meaning
1) Culture is like an iceberg (objective and subjective)
2) Culture is our software (fade into the background, just know that we can be)
3) Culture is like the water a fish swims in (a part of who we are and what the world it like for us, taken for granted)
4) Culture is the story we tell ourselves about ourselves (to show who we are and what the world is like)
5) Culture is the grammar of our behavior (rules to behave appropriately)
--Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.
--As participants, we are meaning makers
--Cultures are always changing

2. Four levels of cross-cultural awareness
1) Cultural differences are exotic
2) Cultural differences are frustrating
3) The different culture is believable
4) The different culture is believable as lived experience
*P31*(a diagram!)

l Stereotype
1. Definition: A generalization that goes beyond the existing evidence, an inaccurate or over generalization, is a stereotype.

2. Negative stereotypes
--A generalization that goes beyond the existing evidence, an inaccurate or over generalization, is a stereotype. (positive vs. negative)
--Prejudice: stereotypes including negative feelings and attitudes toward a group

Forms:
1) severe prejudice (e.g. Women are inferior to men.)
2) symbolic prejudice (e.g. People from Xinjiang are thieves.)
3) tokenism
4) subtle prejudice
5) real likes and dislikes
6) preference for the familiar

3. Differences:
1) Stereotyping: A stereotype is an overly simplified/generalized way of thinking about a person, group, etc. Anyone can stereotype and can be the target of stereotyping. Stereotyping is a complex form of categorization that mentally organizes your experiences and guides your behavior toward a particular group of people.
2) Prejudice: Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. Learned beliefs and values that lead an individual or group of individuals to be biased for or against members of particular groups are prior to actual experience of those groups.
3) Relations between them:
Both are a stumbling block to ICC. Prejudice usually refers to the negative aspect when a group inherits or generates hostile views about a distinguishable group based on generalization. These generalizations are invariably derived from inaccurate or incomplete information about the other group. The generalizations are called stereotyping.

l Context
1. Definition: The meanings that people exchange in ways other than language are usually referred to as context.

2. Low context:
1) tends to prefer direct verbal interaction
2) tends to understand meanings at one level only
3) is generally less proficient reading nonverbal cues
4) values individualism
5) relies more on logic; employs linear logic
6) saying no directly
7) communicates in highly structured messages
8) provides details, stresses literal meanings
9) gives authority to written information
(Characteristics: impersonal, effective to transmit information, not necessary to have relationships)
E.G. contracts between companies

3. High context:
1) tends to prefer indirect verbal interaction
2) tends to understand meanings embedded at many socio-cultural levels
3) is generally more proficient reading nonverbal cues
4) values group membership
5) relies more on context and feeling
6) employs spiral logic
7) talks around point
8) avoids saying no
9) communicates in simple, ambiguous, noncontexted messages
10) understands visual messages readily
(Characters: economical, fast and efficient, take long time to learn, bring people together)
E.G. communication between close friends and family members
*P58 Figure3*

4. How people use words
LC: pay little attention to messages sent non-verbally
HC: have no difficulty understanding the meaning of contextual messages
5. Responsibility for successful communication
LC communicators: the speakers and writers of words are responsible for the success of communication
HC communicators: expect listeners to take more responsibility for interpreting the meaning of messages

l Verbal Communication vs. Non-verbal Communication
1. Contextual framework
Expectant behavior 期待行为
Expectant norms 行为规范
Expectant identity 身份
(E.G. p74)

Chinese
westerner
Expectant behavior
excuses
facts
Expectant norms
harmony
honesty
Expectant identity
Authority knows the fact.
Everyone knows the fact

2. Verbal Communication
Verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.
Verbal Style
Variation
Characteristics
Cultures in which it is found
Indirect vs. Direct
Indirect
Implicit messages
Collective, high-context
Direct
Explicit messages
Individualistic, low-context
Self-enhancement vs. Self-effacement
Self-enhancement
Boasting oneself
In U.S.
Self-effacement
High quantity of talk
Moderate uncertainty avoidance, high context
Elaborate, Exacting and Succinct
Elaborate
High quantity of talk
Moderate uncertainty avoidance, high context
Exacting

Moderate amount of talk
Low uncertainty avoidance, low context
Succinct
Low amount of talk
High uncertainty avoidance, high context
Contextual vs. Personal
Contextual
Focus on the speaker and role relationships
High power distance, collective, high context
Personal
Focus on the speaker personal relationships
Low power distance, collective. high context
Affective vs. Instrumental
Affective
Language is process, oriented and receiver focused
Collective, high context
Instrumental
Language is goal oriented and sender focused
Individualistic, low context

contextual framework
3 expectations:
Expectant behavior
Expectant behavior norms
Expectant identity
structure and content of discourses
1) quality principle
The language we use to express should be understandable to the listener.
Fun, honest, harmonious (what is the general principle.)
2) quantity principle
The amount of information needs to be concerned.
Keep quiet
3) relevance principle
The relevant information to both sides is different
Marriage, salary and weight.
Direct --- indirect communication
4) expression principle
Translation
Vietnam culture

3. Non-verbal Communication
1) It refers to communication through a whole variety of different types of signal come into play, including the way we act, the gestures we employ, the posture we adopt, the facial expression we wear, the direction of our gaze, to the extent to which we touch and the distance from each other.
2) Functions:

a) Repetition
b) Contradiction
c) Substitution
d) Accentuation
e) Complement
f) Regulate
3) Elements:
a) Body language
b) Eye contact
c) Facial expressions
d) Vocal cues— pitch, rate, volume, quality, articulation
e) Space and time

Story
1. Factors to form guiding functions of stories
1) characters
2) conflict
3) action
4) result
• 世界的运行方式（一般原则和特定语境）
• 我们的身份（个人身份和社会身份）
• 行为规范（有效性和恰当性）
• 判断尺度（好与坏、安全与危险）

l Individualism vs. Collectivism
1. Individualism: pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose. Everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family.
1) Manifestations:
• personal privacy
• personal freedom
• personal equality
• self-reliance
• self-expression
2) Advantages:
• politics—democracy in America
• economy—the thriving economy
• culture—personal heroism
• social life—personal desire comes first
3) Disadvantages:
• excessive disparities in wealthy
• the existence of racial discrimination
• other social problems

2. Collectivism: pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
1) Manifestations:
• group unity and harmony
• group goals
• hierarchy and interdependence
• group-orientation
• loyalty, conformity, humility
2) Advantages:
• community spirit—cooperate
• economy—the thriving economy
• culture—collective heroism
• social life—one makes contributions to group
3) Disadvantages:
• not everyone has the team spirit
• hierarch and personal inequality
• leaders use public power for private
• selfish in human nature
• try to lazy and reduce payment as principle
(*P232 Figure12!*)