中西文化之鉴期末复习.doc

Cross-cultural Communicationl What is culture？1. a system of meaning1) Culture is like an iceberg (objective and subjective)2) Culture is our software (fade into the background, just know that we can be)3) Culture is like the water a fish swims in (a part of who we are and what the world it like for us, taken for granted)4) Culture is the story we tell ourselves about ourselves (to show who we are and what the world is like)5) Culture is the grammar of our behavior (rules to behave appropriately)-Culture is the total accumulation of beliefs, customs, values, behaviors, institutions and communication patterns that are shared, learned and passed down through the generations in an identifiable group of people.-As participants, we are meaning makers-Cultures are always changing2. Four levels of cross-cultural awareness1) Cultural differences are exotic2) Cultural differences are frustrating3) The different culture is believable4) The different culture is believable as lived experience*P31*(a diagram!)l Stereotype1. Definition: A generalization that goes beyond the existing evidence, an inaccurate or over generalization, is a stereotype.2. Negative stereotypes-A generalization that goes beyond the existing evidence, an inaccurate or over generalization, is a stereotype. (positive vs. negative)-Prejudice: stereotypes including negative feelings and attitudes toward a groupForms:1) severe prejudice (e.g. Women are inferior to men.)2) symbolic prejudice (e.g. People from Xinjiang are thieves.)3) tokenism4) subtle prejudice5) real likes and dislikes6) preference for the familiar 3. Differences:1) Stereotyping: A stereotype is an overly simplified/generalized way of thinking about a person, group, etc. Anyone can stereotype and can be the target of stereotyping. Stereotyping is a complex form of categorization that mentally organizes your experiences and guides your behavior toward a particular group of people.2) Prejudice: Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. Learned beliefs and values that lead an individual or group of individuals to be biased for or against members of particular groups are prior to actual experience of those groups.3) Relations between them:Both are a stumbling block to ICC. Prejudice usually refers to the negative aspect when a group inherits or generates hostile views about a distinguishable group based on generalization. These generalizations are invariably derived from inaccurate or incomplete information about the other group. The generalizations are called stereotyping.l Context1. Definition: The meanings that people exchange in ways other than language are usually referred to as context.2. Low context: 1) tends to prefer direct verbal interaction2) tends to understand meanings at one level only3) is generally less proficient reading nonverbal cues4) values individualism5) relies more on logic; employs linear logic6) saying no directly7) communicates in highly structured messages8) provides details, stresses literal meanings9) gives authority to written information(Characteristics: impersonal, effective to transmit information, not necessary to have relationships)E.G. contracts between companies3. High context:1) tends to prefer indirect verbal interaction2) tends to understand meanings embedded at many socio-cultural levels3) is generally more proficient reading nonverbal cues4) values group membership5) relies more on context and feeling6) employs spiral logic7) talks around point8) avoids saying no9) communicates in simple, ambiguous, noncontexted messages10) understands visual messages readily(Characters: economical, fast and efficient, take long time to learn, bring people together)E.G. communication between close friends and family members*P58 Figure3*4. How people use wordsLC: pay little attention to messages sent non-verballyHC: have no difficulty understanding the meaning of contextual messages5. Responsibility for successful communicationLC communicators: the speakers and writers of words are responsible for the success of communicationHC communicators: expect listeners to take more responsibility for interpreting the meaning of messagesl Verbal Communication vs. Non-verbal Communication1. Contextual frameworkExpectant behavior 期待行为Expectant norms 行为规范Expectant identity 身份(E.G. p74)Chinese westerner Expectant behavior excuses facts Expectant norms harmony honesty Expectant identity Authority knows the fact. Everyone knows the fact 2. Verbal CommunicationVerbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.Verbal StyleVariationCharacteristicsCultures in which it is foundIndirect vs. DirectIndirectImplicit messagesCollective, high-contextDirectExplicit messagesIndividualistic, low-contextSelf-enhancement vs. Self-effacementSelf-enhancementBoasting oneselfIn U.S.Self-effacementHigh quantity of talkModerate uncertainty avoidance, high contextElaborate, Exacting and SuccinctElaborateHigh quantity of talkModerate uncertainty avoidance, high contextExactingModerate amount of talkLow uncertainty avoidance, low contextSuccinctLow amount of talkHigh uncertainty avoidance, high contextContextual vs. PersonalContextualFocus on the speaker and role relationshipsHigh power distance, collective, high contextPersonalFocus on the speaker personal relationshipsLow power distance, collective. high contextAffective vs. InstrumentalAffectiveLanguage is process, oriented and receiver focusedCollective, high contextInstrumentalLanguage is goal oriented and sender focusedIndividualistic, low contextcontextual framework3 expectations: Expectant behaviorExpectant behavior normsExpectant identitystructure and content of discourses1) quality principle The language we use to express should be understandable to the listener. Fun, honest, harmonious (what is the general principle.)2) quantity principle The amount of information needs to be concerned.Keep quiet3) relevance principleThe relevant information to both sides is differentMarriage, salary and weight.Direct - indirect communication4) expression principleTranslationVietnam culture3. Non-verbal Communication1) It refers to communication through a whole variety of different types of signal come into play, including the way we act, the gestures we employ, the posture we adopt, the facial expression we wear, the direction of our gaze, to the extent to which we touch and the distance from each other.2) Functions:a) Repetitionb) Contradictionc) Substitutiond) Accentuatione) Complementf) Regulate3) Elements:a) Body languageb) Eye contactc) Facial expressionsd) Vocal cues pitch, rate, volume, quality, articulatione) Space and timeStory1. Factors to form guiding functions of stories1) characters 2) conflict3) action4) result 世界的运行方式（一般原则和特定语境） 我们的身份（个人身份和社会身份） 行为规范（有效性和恰当性） 判断尺度（好与坏、安全与危险）l Individualism vs. Collectivism1. Individualism: pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose. Everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family.1) Manifestations: personal privacy personal freedom personal equality self-reliance self-expression2) Advantages: politicsdemocracy in America economythe thriving economy culturepersonal heroism social lifepersonal desire comes first3) Disadvantages: excessive disparities in wealthy the existence of racial discrimination other social problems2. Collectivism: pertains to societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong cohesive in-groups, which throughout peoples lifetime continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.1) Manifestations: group unity and harmony group goals hierarchy and interdependence group-orientation loyalty, conformity, humility2) Advantages: community spiritcooperate economythe thriving economy culturecollective heroism social lifeone makes contributions to group3) Disadvantages: not everyone has the team spirit hierarch and personal inequality leaders use public power for private selfish in human nature try to lazy and reduce payment as principle(*P232 Figure12!*)