词汇学期末复习.doc

orphemes------fruit+ful   Three morphemes----un+fruit+ful
2 A synchronic approach and a diachronic approach are approaches to the study of a language.
3 an allomorph 词素变体is one or two or more complimentary morphs which magnifies a morpheme in its different phonological environments  
4 nbsp;Free morphemes and bound morphemes自由词素和粘着词素
A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning.
A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme
5A root 词根is that part of a word-form that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. (it conveys the main lexical meaning)
6 基本的构词方法：Word-formation
（1） 派生法-derivation  Definition: Derivation or affixation is a method of word-formation by which new words are created by adding affixes( prefix or suffix or both) or combining form to the base
（2） 复合法--Compounding/composition定义A word-formation process in which words are formed by putting two or more words together.
（3） 转化法--Conversion /functional shift/ transmutation/zero-derivation
其他构词方法
（4） 缩略法--abbreviation/shortening 《包括clipping截短词(apocope尾, aphaeresis首，front and back clipping,首尾，syncope腰）initialism首字母缩略,acronym首字母拼音，blending拼缀词 =telescopic word =portmanteau word 》
   首字母缩略词不可以读出来IQ=intelligence quotient  BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation
首字母拼音词是可以读出来的，例如SALT 、WASP，dinky
拼缀法 Camcorder 摄像机=camera照相机+recorder 录音机
（5）逆生法--Back-formation nbsp;  donation    donate   emotion    emote  
（6） 拟声法--onomatopoeia 指words containing sounds similar to the noises they describe
    声音的来源有人类，动物，其他事物
    拟声词的作用：Imitating the sound and being used as a verb
                  Imitating the sound and referring to the thing making the sound
Prefixation 前缀法 Suffixation 加后缀
第四单元 词义理据和词义的组成
1 词义：The relationship between language and the world
         Meaning (concept)
word
       Form               Referent
(word, sentence )........object in the world  词的无理拒性又叫随意性arbitrariness
2Motivation理据 is the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning
 （1）Phonetic motivation语音分析 例如the moo of a cow
 （2）Morphological motivation构词分析 例如 readable 看后缀可知道其意思daydream复合词                      不是所有的复合词都是有理据的如eggplant茄子
 （3）Semantic motivation语义分析 例如  the leg of a table   earn bread
 （4）Etymological motivation词源分析 例如 汉语火车开动需要火的
3词义的组成
（1）Grammatical meaning
（2）Lexical meaning--- conceptual / referential meaning 概念意义
                       ---associative meaning   关联意义
关联意义分为4种：connotative meaning内涵意义（mother--female parent 想到love, care, and tenderness )stylistic meaning文体意义（正式和非正式和中性）affective meaning 情感意义（collocative meaning 搭配意义（pretty girl和 handsome boy）

                                                                                                                   
第五单元一词多义和同形异义
1一词多义--Polysemy is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a  range of different meanings
Two approaches to study polysemy --diachronic and synchronic历时和共时
2一词多义的种类
Original vs. Extended ----candidate  pen
General vs. Specific ---artist（艺术家和美术家） gas(气体和煤气）
Abstract vs. Concrete----government（治国之道和政府）  beauty  pride
Literal vs. Metaphoric字面和比喻意义----cool  flaw（裂隙和缺点）reflect(反射和反映）
3同形异义Homonymy[hɔˈmɔnimi] Same form (either pronunciation or spelling or both) but different meaning
 同形异义的种类
（1）Perfect homonyms (Words identical in pronunciation and spelling but different in meaning) （bear熊和忍耐，sound声音和健全的)
（2）Homophones(Words identical in pronunciation but different in spelling and meaning)(air and heir, right and write and rite)
（3）Homographs(Words identical in spelling but different in pronunciation and meaning)(minute 分钟-minute 微笑的, tear-tear 哭和撕)
4 歧义Ambiguity: more than one interpretation, caused by polysemy or homonymy. Eg. Engaged
 含混Vagueness: not clear meaning  tall 不知道多高才算高,either...or...  Neighbour John's train
之间的区别：歧义是由于一词多义和同形异义造成的，同一个词有不同的解释。而含混的词只有一种解释，但是词义的程度，范围和所指不明确。含混是模糊性（fuzziness) 的特殊形式
第六单元:词义关系  
1 同义关系 --synonymy synonyms
类型分为完全同义词和部分同义词--perfect synonyms and partial synonyms 绝对同义词导致迟早有个会废弃不用。如submarine 和U-boat 有些反义词却是近义loosen和unloosen, valuable 和invaluable部分同义词例如couple,pair,yoke,brace一组，由于概念意义和关联意义不同导致
同义词的来源：1) Borrowing(answer--reply) 2)Dialects and regional English(liquor--whiskey)
3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words（sanitary engineer指代清洁工）
4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions  (fall out=quarrel）
2词汇变体 lexical variation 读音和拼写上都有些区别，但是词义和用法上毫无区别，几乎是同一个词，如whatever--whatsoever favour--favor  connection---connexion          philanthropy  
3误用词语 malapropism 由于两个词的发音和拼写相近而出错，如I will devote myself to philandering
4反义关系Antonymy  Antonyms
种类：1)绝对反义词contradictory terms=binary antonyms=complementaries) 没有任何中间状态
例如dead--alive  true--false   2)两极反义词contrary terms =gradable antonyms 直线坐标上有内项和外项，距离中点相等如excellent,good,bad,terrible.  3)关系反义词relational opposites方向相对,如upward,downward   parent,child  4)多项不相容词semantic incompatibles如东南西北，春夏秋冬
5反义词的修辞手法：antithesis 对偶   paradox 似是而非矛盾   irony反讽   oxymoron矛盾修饰法,如living death, painful pleasure, poorest millionaires.  
6下义关系 hyponymy hyponyms 如human being 的下义有child,man,woman,baby 人类称为上义词superordinate term, 下面的统称为co-hyponyms . 但同一个词也可能包含上下义，如dog泛指狗，特制公狗
第八单元 词义的转移 semantic shift
1 隐喻(暗喻）metaphor：a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on association of similarity in which a word or a  phase ordinarily primarily used for one thing is applied to anther. 由于2个事物的特征上有类似之处，用一个事物的词来指另外一个事物。如
The head of an arrow. The lip of a bowl. The eye of a needle针眼 to fox欺骗 to wolf
2 借代 metonymy ：a figure of speech by which an object or idea is described by the name of something closely related to it2个事物之间存在的现实关系，可以用一个事物的词来代替另外一个事物
如the kettle is boiling.由于水壶和水存在现实关系  have a good nose for 由于鼻子和嗅觉有关
Apply to the sword 剑和武力有关 he ate a another bowl 碗和饭有关  
3移就 transferred epithet 用形容的词来形容事物  如glad tidings   a doubtful question
4 通感 synaesthesia 味觉视觉听觉触觉嗅觉不分界限 sweet voice   a sharp sound
5 提喻 synecdoche :a figure of speech in which a part is used for a whole, or vice versa
 用局部代替整体或用整体代替部分，用特殊代替一般或用一般代替特殊
如to count heads 点人数，头是人的一部分  earn my bread 面包是生计的一部分 he is a poor creature
第十三单元 成语
成语的基本特征 1）each idiom is a semantic unit 2) structural stability 3) long idiomatic usage
判断题
1. Motivation explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.
2. Grammatical meaning refers to the part of speech, tenses of verbs and stylistic features of words.
3. Collocation can affect the meaning of words.
4. The connotative meaning is also known as connotations, which are generally found in the dictionary.
5. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.
6. Affective meaning refers to the part of the word-meaning which indicates the attitude of the user.
第七单元 词义的变化
种类（1 ）词义扩大Extension(generalization of meaning) : the meaning of the word changes from specific to generalized one or cover a broader concept.如lady,scene,box,carry,bullish,brim
分为1）特指到泛指From Specific to general--scarf 2）From concrete to abstract---grasp 3)术语要一般词语From technical to general words--atomic,catalyst 4)专有名词到普通名词From proper nouns to common nouns ---牛顿，诺贝尔，三明治，boycott, 沙文主义，希腊神话，china陶瓷，champagne法国地名变酒，zipper商标名词变拉链
（2） 词义缩小Specialization/narrowing/restriction of meaning 如，poison饮料--毒药  
分为1）From general to specific  2）From abstract to concrete 3）From common nouns to proper nouns （the prophet–the Prophet）4）From common nouns to technical terms （memory存储器）5）The narrowing of borrowed words （法语词garage储存东西的地方--车库，拉丁词liquor液体--烈酒，hospital休息娱乐场所-医院，Girl年轻人--女孩
（3）词义的升格Elevation Inn 小客栈– 酒店，Lord分发面包的人–贵族，
Enthusiasm 宗教狂热情绪—热情，Angel信使—天使，Paradise花园–天堂
（4） 词义的降格Degradation 如silly幸福的--傻的，sad满足的镇静的--悲伤的，
（5） 解释！词义变化的原因 1）语言因素：borrowing ,shortening ,analogy 2)非语言因素：class,psychological, historical如Dutch荷兰与英国交战，英国恨荷兰贬义Dutch这个词。心理如propaganda动植物繁殖--为达到目的而使用的宣传伎俩。阶级如red,在英国受欢迎，但是冷战时期共产党人被称为the Reds贬义了。3）委婉语使用Euphemism如courtesy seat 老弱病残的座位 shop-lifting小偷