unit 9 pragmatics.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Pragmatics,1.,Wife:,Whats on television?,Husband:,Nothing,.,（,Husband,is reading a newspaper,）,2.A:Whats on television?,B:Nothing.All the TV stations are on strike.,Definitions,of Pragmatics,Levinson(1983:6-27)listed about ten definitions about pragmatics:Definition 1:,Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are,grammaticalized,or encoded in the structure of a language.,语用学是对在一种语言的结构中被语法化或被编码的那些语言和语境之间的关系的研究。,Definition 2:,Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captured in a semantic theory.,语用学是对所有那些未能纳入语意理论的意义侧面的研究。,Definition,3:,Pragmatics is the study of,deixis,(at least in part),implicature,presupposition,speech acts,and aspects of discourse structure.,语用学是对指示（至少是其中的一部分）、含义、前提、言语行为以及话语结构各个侧面的研究。,Pragmatics is the study of,meaning in use,meaning in context,speaker meaning,contextual meaning,Pragmatics studies,communication,(utterance production and comprehension)from,a functional(i.e.social,cultural,cognitive)perspective.,There are two concepts that are primary:,meaning and context,.,From,the viewpoint of development,the emergence of pragmatics is an extension in the research of meanings.,However,the meanings studied in,pragmatics,are different from those of,semantics,.,Semantics,Vs,pragmatics,Semanticism,:semantics includes pragmatics,Pragmaticism,:pragmatics includes semantics,Complementarism,:semantics studies,meaning in the abstract;pragmatics,studies meaning in the context/use.,The meanings involved in pragmatics are not something abstract,or something independent of context,rather they are specific meanings,embodied in actual uses.,Sense,Reference,Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect,successful communication,.,Pragmatics is different from traditional semantics in that it studies meaning not in isolation but in,context.,对所使用的语言的掌握,语言知识,对语言交际上文的了解,百科全书式的知识（常识）,语境 背景知识 特定文化的社会规范,特定文化的会话规则,交际的时间、地点,语言外知识 情景知识 交际的主题,交际的正式程度,相互知识 交际参与者的相互关系,i,见何兆熊主编的,新编语用学概要,，上海外语教育出版社，,2000,，,P.21,Semanticists take,meaning,to be an inherent property of language,pragmaticists,regard meaning as something that is realized in the,course of communication,.,语用学是语言学的一个较新的领域，它研究在特定情境中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。,(,何自然：,1995.,P1),1,、,语用学是理解和使用语言的学问。,1),Go,to work happily,and come back safely!,2)A,:Do you like rugby?,B:I am a New Zealander.,3)A:Do you like rice,B:I am a Cantonese,you know.,4)John,:Are you going to the seminar?,Mary:Its on pragmatics.,Pragmatic failure in intercultural communication,Where are you going?,Have you eaten yet?,A:Will you have some more?,B1 Oh,yes,please.Its delicious.,B2 Oh,no,thank you.,I,dont want much to eat.,B3 Thank you.,Appropriateness,I am sorry to hear about your grandma.,I was sorry hear that your grandma killed herself.,I was sorry to hear your grandma tripped over the cat,cartwheeled,down the stairs and brained herself on the electricity meter.,Sentence Meaning,Utterance,Meaning,It is the abstract context-independent entity called semantic proposition.,It is context-dependent.It is the product of sentence meaning and context.Therefore,it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.,Deictic expressions,（,指示语,）,Deixis:(from Greek)anchoring,pointing (toward the context)phenomenon.,The linguistic means used in this function are known as,deictics,indexicals,(or indexical/deictic expressions).,Examples:pronouns,demonstratives,time and place adverbs,and some grammatical categories such as tense.,Characteristics in use,The egocentricity of deixis,Deictic expressions are anchored to specific,points,in the communicative event.The unmarked,points,called the deictic center,are typically assumed to be as follows(S.Levinson:,Pragmatics,):,I,love,this,game!,-,the central person is the speaker,-the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance,-the central place is the speakers location at utterance time,-the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance,-the social center is the speakers social status and rank,to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative,Deictic vs.Non-deictic,Deictic:gestural/symbolic,You,you,but not you,are dismissed.(gestural),What did you say?(Symbolic),Non-deictic:anaphoric/non-anaphoric,Jack is a student.,He,comes from Britain.,You,can never tell what sex they are nowadays.,There,you go again./,There,we go.,I did,this,and,that,.,Classification of deixis,Person deixis,Place deixis,Time deixis,social deixis,discourse deixis,2.Speech Act Theory,Saying is acting.(John Austin,How to do Things with Words,1962),Teacher:Class begins.,Boss:You are fired!,Speech act theory originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late,1950s,.According to this theory,we are performing various kinds of acts when we are speaking.,“,Speech acts,”refer to actions performed via utterances.,Speech acts,are“the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”.,“The unit of linguistic communication is not,as has generally been supposed,the symbol,word or sentence,but rather the production of the symbol or word or sentence in the performance of the,speech act,”,Searle,a.There is a book on the desk.,b.I promise Ill be there ten sharp tomorrow.,hereby-test:first person singular subject,simple present tense,indicative mood,active voice,performative verbs(with exceptions,though),Constatives,(,表述句）,and,performatives,（施为句）,According to Austin,while making an utterance,a speaker is performing three acts simultaneously:,a,locutionary,act,an illocutionary act,and a,perlocutionatry,act.,Austins classification,-,locutionary act:what is said,-illocutionary act:what is intended to do,-perlocutionary act:what is to be,effected,Leech:,locutionary act,performing an act,of,saying,sth,Illocutionary act,performing an act,in,saying sth,Perlocutionary act,performing an act,by,saying sth,A,locutionary,act is the act of saying something;it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon and phonology.,An illocutionary act is the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speakers intention.,A,perlocutionary,act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something;it is the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.,Practice:,Analyze As remark in the following in terms of the three,acts.,A:,The phone is ringing,.,B:(Stands up and picks up the receiver)Hello.,Searle also made his contribution to the study of illocutionary speech acts.He specified five types of illocutionary speech acts:,1)representative,2)directive,3)commissive,4)expressive,5)declaration,Searles classification of illocutionary acts,Representatives/,assertives,（阐述类）,:,describe,inform,deny,state,claim,assert,remind,etc.,Directives,（指令类）,:,request,ask,urge,tell,demand,order,advise,command,beseech,etc.,Commissives,（承诺类）,:,commit,promise,threaten,pledge,consent,refuse,offer,guarantee,etc.,Expressives,（表达类）,:,apologize,boast,thank,deplore,welcome,congratulate,greet,etc.,Declarations,（宣告类）,:,declare,resign,appoint,nominate,bless,christen,name,etc.,The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to somethings being the case,to the truth of the expressed,proposition,命题,.,I guess that he has come.,I think that the film is moving.,I am certain that he has come.,Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.,Open the door!,Dont you think its a bit,stuffy here?,Commissives,are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action.When speaking,the speaker puts himself under obligation,.,I promise to love,you forever!,Ill bring you this book.,The illocutionary point of,expressives,to to express the psychological state specified in the propositional content such as apologizing,thanking,congratulating,welcoming etc.,Im sorry for the mess I have,made.,Its very kind of you to have thought of me.,The point of this declaration is to bring about the correspondence between the propositional content and reality.,I declare the meeting open.,I appoint you chairman of the committee.,I fire you!,Presupposition,Presupposition and entailment,Presupposition triggers:linguistics device that make inference possible.,PP 151-152 No.8,9,Principles of Conversation,The co-operative principle,In making conversation,Grice holds that there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.,Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.,The maxim of quantity,1.Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange).,2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.,The maxim of quality,1.Do not say what you believe to be,false.,2.Do not say that for which you lack,adequate evidence.,The maxim of relation,Be relevant.,The maxim of manner,1.Avoid obscurity of expression.,2.Avoid ambiguity.,3.Be brief.,4.Be orderly.,When we violate these maxims,in some situations,conversational,implicature,will arise.,Example 1:,A:Do you know where Mr.X lives?,B:Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.,(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr.Xs address.),Violating the,maxim of quantity,Violating,the maxim of quantity,Example 2:,Dear Sir,Mr.Lees command of English is excellent,and his attendance at tutorials has been regular.Yours,XX,Example 3:,At a party,Jack met Rose for the first time,Example 4:,My job is OK.A:Where have you been?,B,:Out,The head of police was talking to the,four policemen.He shouted at them,“Peas”!,You four cannot catch one thief.”,“We,weren,t peas,”the four protested,“Though,he escaped,yet we had managed,to get,his fingerprint.”,“Where,is,it?”,“On,our,face.”,Violating,the maxim of quality,I think he was married and had a lioness at home.,Metaphor,Irony,A:Would you like to come to,our party tonight?,B:Im afraid Im not,feeling so well today.,Flouting,the maxim of relation,A:What time is it now?,B:The milkman has just come.,A:The hostess is an awful bore.Dont,you think?,B:The roses in the garden are beautiful,arent they?,(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess),Flouting the,maxim of manner,A:Shall we get something for the,kids?,B:yes.But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.,(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).,有顾客来买东西，店员请示店东最低可减至什么价钱，店东以行话来回答,(,例如以“平顶”表“一”、“分头”表“八”、“田心”表“十”等,),，店东的隐晦表达形式就有这样的意向含意,:,我这样说，是为了不让顾客听懂，你也不要在顾客面前一下子把这“底线”抛出来。,香港黑社会的人彼此会用他们的黑话来交谈，例如将“失踪”说成“蒸发”、“逃亡”称为“着草”、将抢骗谋财称为“吃大茶饭”等，用这种有别于全民通用的规范形式的特异表达形式，是表示这样的意向含意,:,我们是同伙的,;,意在增添一点认同感和凝聚力。,“阿娟今天上午到女人街逛市场买时装，今天下午再到女人街逛市场买时装，现在还是去女人街逛市场买时装，听说明天上午她还是要去女人街逛市场再买时装”，受话人就会有这样的感受,:,老是去女人街逛市场买时装,。,试比较,:“,阿娟上午、下午和现在都是去女人街逛市场买时装，听说明天上午还要去”，后者就不一定会使受话人产生这样的感受。这是说话人将自己的意图和倾向物化为可感可视的语言形式，影响受话人。,politeness principle,conversational implicature,cooperative principle,