1、实用标准文案Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学知识点:1. *Definition: pragmatics; context2. *sentence meaning vs utterance meaning3. *Austins model of speech act theory4. Searles classification of speech acts5. *Grices Cooperative Principle考核目标:识记:*Definition: pragmatics; context领会:Searles classification of speech acts
2、综合应用:sentence meaning vs utterance meaning;Austins model of speech act theory;Grices Cooperative Principle一、定义 1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. 语用学研究的是语言使
3、用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。(它不是孤立地去研究语义,而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。)2. Context 语境:The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, its generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。二、知识点 6
4、.1.2 pragmatics vs. semantics语用学与语义学 二十世纪初,Saussures Course in General Linguistics 一书的出版标志着现代语言学研究的开始,同时也为现代语言学奠定了基础调,即语言应该作为一个独立的,内在的系统来加以研究。语用学和语义学既有相关性又有相异性。两者都是对意义的研究。传统语义学把语义看成是抽象的,内在的,是语言本身的特性,不受语境的影响。因此传统语义学只研究语义的内在特征,不把语义研究置于语境中来考察。 语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述,因此在
5、研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. 6.1.3 con
6、textContext 语境:The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, its generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。(语境是交际双方共有的知识,它包括双方具有的语言知识以及有关客观世界的知识,而客观世界的知识又包括有关世界的常识性知识以及交际发生的实际情景知识。)
7、(参考p79英p235-236中 例子)6.1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义与话语意义1)Sentence meaning句子意义-abstract抽象的, decontextualized脱离语境的2)Utterance meaning话语意义-concrete具体的, contextualized依赖语境的, its based on sentence meaning, its the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of
8、communication, or simply in a context. 话语的意义是基于句子意义之上的;它是一个句子的抽象意义在一个真实的交际场合,或仅在一个语境中的体现。区分句子和话句,类似区分语义和语用学,关键在于是否考虑语境。 句子是语法单位。当把句子用在实际交际中时,句子便成了话语。句子意义是抽象的,是句子的语义内容,它孤立于语境之外; 话语意义是具体的,它基于句子意义与语境的结合,是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化,体现了说话人的意图和目的。由于话语语义是句子意义与语境结合的结果,话语语义要比句子的语义丰富得多。如:”You are a machine.”句子的意思是“你是机器。”
9、,但是一旦与具体的语境相结合,就会产生不同的话语语义,如说话人可能是说听话人没有情感,或说听话人不知疲倦地工作,或者说听话人做事比较机械等。 要如何理解它要视它所发生的语境和言者说这话的目的而定。 大部分话语在语法形式上与句子相吻合,但是也有一些话语在语法上是不完整的,有些甚至不能还原为完整的句子。如,语言使用者在特定的语境中可以使用话语” The door, please!”去行使关门的请求。像“Hi!” 和“Ouch!”这样的话语很难还原成语法完整的句子。 区分句子和话句,类似区分语义和语用学,关键在于是否考虑语境。 While most utterances take the form
10、of sentences, i.e. most utterances are complete sentences.In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some cant even be restored to complete sentences6.2 speech act theory言语行为理论6.2.Austins model speech act 奥斯汀的言语行为模式1.英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出了speech act theory言语行为理论。在他的言语行为理论中,奥斯汀区分了叙事话语(co
11、nstative)和行事话语(performative)。P238中 e.g.1)叙事话语是陈述之言,用于陈述或描述,其真值是可以检验的。 2)行事话语的话语不是以陈述或描述事实为目的的,是没有真值的。奥斯汀认为语言使用者在使用句子时并不总是为了去陈述或描述,而是为了实施一个言语行为。 2. 他又设立了另一个新模式,定义了言内行为locutionary act、言外行为illocutionary act,和perlocutionary act言后行为 奥斯汀认为人在说话时很可能同时实施三种言语行为, 即言内行为(locutionary act) 、言外行为(illocutionary act)
12、和言后行为(perlocutionary act)。1)言内行为指的是“说话”这一行为本身,如说出单词、短语和句子等。言内行为通过句法、词汇和语音传递一个字面语义。 2)言外行为是通过说话这一动作实施一种行为,体现了说话人的说话意图。人们通过说话可以达到各种目的,如传递信息,发出命令、作出承诺、提出建议等。3)言后行为是指说话带来的后果,例如通过说话听话人受到了警告等。 e.g. You have left the door wide open. 1)Locutionary act: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mea
13、n. 表达了每个词的字面意义。2)Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. 表达了他说话的意图(即请某人把门关上,或者抱怨,视语境而定。)3)Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed. 指话语的效果(即听者听到言者信息,明白并言者要他关门,并把门关上,这样就成功地实施了。) 在这三种行为中,
14、语言学家对illocutionary act言外行为最感兴趣 this kind of speech act is identical with the speakers intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer. 因为这种语言行为与言者的意图一致,而且在他们对语言交际的研究
15、中,语言学家门最感兴趣的是言者是如何表达其意图,以及他的意图是如何为听者所识别。(它与说话人的真实意图相吻合。)6.2.2 Searles classification of speech acts(Searle对语言行为的分类)美国语言学家John Searle把illocutionary act言外行为分为五大类:the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.每一类中的具体行为都具有相同的言外之意,但是他们的力度有所不同。1)representatives/assertives阐述类:阐述类的言外之意是说话人相信自己所
16、说话的真实性。即说出言者认为正确的东西。(陈述,相信,发誓,假设)例如: Its going to rain. (I swear) I have never heard it before. (I state) The earth is globe.2) directives指令类: 指令类的言外之意是说话人通过说话使听话人去做某件事的企图,(邀请,建议,要求,忠告,警告,威胁, 命令)如: Come to me at 7 this evening! Open the window! Youd better go to the clinic! Your money or your life!
17、Would you like to go to the picnic with us?3) commissives承诺类:承诺类的言外之意是使说话人对某一未来的行为作出承诺,说话的时候言者将自己置于某种义务之中(允诺,保证,发誓)如: I promise to come. I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4)expressives表达类: 表达类的言外之意是对命题内容中表明的某种事态表达说话人的某种心理状态,换句话说,说话人对某一事态表达自己的情感和态度,(道歉,感谢,祝愿)如: I am sorry to interrupt y
18、ou. Thank you very much for your kind help. Its really kind of you to have thought of me.5)declarations宣告类: 宣告类的言外之意是使客观现实与所表达的命题内容立即相一致(这种行为的成功执行会带来所说的话与现实之间的一致)如: I now declare the meeting open. I appoint you chairman of the committee. I fire you! 属于同一类别的言外行为具有相同的言外之的,但是它们的言外之力可能会存在程度上的差别,如:(p241中
19、)I swear that he is innocent. I guess that he is innocent. I think that he is innocent. 6.2.3 indirect speech acts间接的语言行为Indirect language: instead of using the imperative form祈使语气 to make a request e.g. Do you mind closing the door? The door is open!Three basic sentences forms: 1) the declarative s
20、entence陈述句 2)the imperative sentence祈使句 3)the interrogative sentence.疑问句e.g. Can you lend me your lecture notes? The kitchen is in an awful mess.Indirect speech act: aimed to explain indirect language in the light of speech act theory, two speech acts theory. When a speaker is using indirecy languag
21、e, he is performing two speech acts simultaneously: 1)the primary speech act: the speakers goal of communication. 2) the secondary speech act: means by which he achieves.Student X:Lets go to the movies tonight.Student Y:I have to study for an exam. (间接回答no,表示拒绝)6.3 principle of conversation会话原则(the
22、cooperative principle会话原则,简称CP,by Paul Grice )英国哲学家Paul Grice提出的合作原则是指导有效交际的最高原则。合作原则的具体内容是: .合作原则Cooperative Principle Its proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for th
23、em to carry on the talk. (每一个参加交际的人在交际过程中所说的话要符合为大家所接受的交际目标或方向。 )合作原则具体体现为以下四条准则: 1. the maxim of Quantity数量准则:1)Make your contribution as informative as required你说的话应包含(当前交谈意图)所需要的信息。2)Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 所说的话不应包含超出需要的信息。2. the maxim of Quality质量准则:1)Do n
24、ot say what you believe to false. 不要说自知是假的话2)Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence1。 不要说缺乏足够证据的话。 3. the maxim of relation关联准则:be relevant要有关联性4. the maxim of manner方式准则:1)Avoid obscurity of expression 避免表达晦涩2)Avoid ambiguity避免歧义3)Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity)要简练(避免不必要的冗繁)4) Be ord
25、erly 要条理清晰 在交际中,虽然说话几乎总是遵循合作原则,但是他们并不一定始终如一地严格遵守合作原则以下的各条准则。当这些原则公然受到违反/鄙视(flout)时往往我们的言语变的间接,会话含义就有可能产生。 Mary: Do you know where Prof. Zhang lives? John: Somewhere beyond the lake. 当Mary知道John是知道Prof. Zhang确切的住址,而且John也知道Mary是知道他知道Prof. Zhang的确切住址,这样一来,John公然违反了数量准则,提供的信息少于Mary所需要的信息,因此John的话语就会产生会
26、话含义,既:“我不愿意告诉你Prof. Zhang具体住在什么地方。” Mary: Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday? John: Im afraid I have got a class on Sunday. 当Mary知道John今天不忙,而且John也知道Mary是知道他今天不忙,在这种情况下,John的话语显然违反了质量准则,其会话含义是“我不想参加你们星期天的野炊。” Mary: Our linguistics teacher is terrible. Dont you think? John: It is gett
27、ing colder and colder, isnt it? 当Mary知道John是能够对语言学老师作出相关评论的,而且John也认为Mary是知道他能对语言学老师作出相关评论的,在这种情况下,John的话语公然违反了关联准则,产生的会话含义是“我不愿意与你讨论语言学老师的事。” Mary: Shall we get something for the kids? John: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M. Mary是知道John能够正确的读出ice-cream这个词,John也认为Mary是知道他能够正确读出ice-cream这个词,在这种情况下,John的话语显然公然违反了方式准则,因为他没有直截了当地发出ice-cream这个字,而是一个字母一个字母地把它拼了出来,其会话含义是“我不想让孩子知道我们在讨论ice-cream。” 合作原则的意义在于它能解释为什么说话人在交际中能够向听话人传递多于字面意义的意义. 精彩文档
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