语言学导论第4章Syntax.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Syntax 句法学,A branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the,formation of sentences,.,Syntax theories:,Transformational syntax,Transformational Generative Grammar,(TG),转换生成语法,Transformational Generative Grammar(TG),Noam.Chomsky,(1928-),the most influential linguist,in 20,th,century,some important works:,(1957),Syntactic Structure,;,(1965)Aspects of the Theory of Syntax;,(1981)Lectures on Government and Binding;,(1986)Barriers,(1993)A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory;,(1995)The Minimalist Program;,(1998)The Minimalist Inquiry,Criteria on good grammar,Observational adequacy 观察充分性,Descriptive adequacy 描述充分性,Explanatory adequacy 解释充分性,The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain.,TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description,but also its,explanation,.,Chomsky proposed that the grammars of all human languages share a common framework(,Universal Grammar,).,Major lexical categories,Noun(N),Verb(V),Adjective(A),Preposition(P),Minor lexical categories,Determiner(Det),限定词,:the,a,this,those,Degree(Deg)程度词,:quite,very,more,so,Qualifier(Qual)修饰词,:often,always,seldom,almost,Auxiliary(Aux)助词,:must,should,can,might,Conjunction(Con),:and,but,or,Word-level categories,Criteria to determine word categories,Meaning,：,the type of,meaning,that they express,Inflection：,the type of,affixes,that they take,Distribution,the type of,structures,in which they occur,Word-level categories,Meaning：,N.:to denote entities and objects,e.g.,John,Mary,pen,book,V.:to designate action,sensation and states,e.g.,run,hate,exist,Adj.:to modify property of nouns,e.g.,pretty,lady,Adv.:to denote property of verbs,e.g.,Jenny left,quietly,.,Not always reliable:,He stands,still,.,love,hate,be aware of,know about,Inflection,-affix,Words of different categories take different inflections.,E.g.,Plural affix,“,s,”,N,.,Past tense,“,ed,”,progressive affix,“,ing,”,V,.,Comparative affix,“,er,”,superlative,“,est,”,A,.,Exception:,milk,stand-stood,let-let,more competitive,“,s,”third person singular,“,ed,”,Adj.(deviational affix),“,er,”,teacher(deviational affix),Distribution,-collocation,What type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.,E.g.,N.,Det.,:,the car,a girl,V.,Aux.,:,would go,should stay,A.,Deg.:,very cool,too bright,Ex 7,Exercise,Categories,the boy in the classroom,always play football,very close to the library,quite near the station,Phrase categories,The syntactic units that are built around a certain word category,e.g.,NP,:girl,the pretty girl,VP,:dream,often dream,AP,:pessimistic,very pessimistic,PP,:about,mainly about,NP VP AP PP -,phrase level,N V A P -word level,The structure:,a,picture,on the wall,+,head,+,标志语 中心词 补语,Head:the word around which a phrase is formed,Specifier:the words on the,left,side of the heads,Complement:the words on the,right,side of the heads,Phrase categories,specifier,complement,Phrase structure rules,短语结构规则,The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase:,NP,(Det)+N+(PP),e.g.,those people,the fish on the plate,VP,(Qual)+V+(NP),e.g.,always play games,finish assignments,AP,(Deg)+A+(PP),e.g.,very handsome,familiar with,very close to,PP,(Deg)+P+(NP),e.g.,on the shelf,quite near the station,Ex 8,Specifier X Complement,Head,XP,The XP rule,Note:X stands for N,V,A or P.,The XP rule:,XP,(specifier)X(complement),Exercise,Draw the structure of the following,phrase,s,the boy in the classroom,always play football,very close to the library,quite near the station,Coordination rule,并列规则,Coordinate structures,:,the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of,the same type,with the help of a conjunction.,Four properties:,no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction;,a category at any level can be coordinated;,the categories must be of the same type;,the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.,Coordination rule,:X X*ConX,Ex 10,Phrase elements,短语成分,Specifier,Head,Complement,Modifier,Specifier Head Complement,X,P,X,:N,V,A(Adv),P,Specifiers 标志语,Functions:,Semantically,specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head;,Syntactically,they typically mark a phrase boundary.,Specifiers:,determiners,as in,NP,:,the,tree,this,book,qualifiers,as in,VP,:,always,fail,never,surrender,degree words,as in,AP,:,quite,good,very,sensitive,PP,:,almost,in,quite,above,Complements 补语,Complements can be phrases,Providing information about,entities,and,locations,whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head,Attached to the,right,of the head,E.g.,a story about a sentimental girl,nervous about the exam,in the lake,open the door,send me an email,put it on the wall,There can be,no,complement,one,complement,or,more,than one complement in a phrase,E.g.,a VP,:,appear,break.,put,A,sentence-like construction,may also function as a complement,E.g.,I believed,that,she was innocent,.,I doubt,if,she will come,.,Complementizers,补语化成分:,that/if,:,Complement clause,:the clauses introduced by,complementizers.,Complement phrase,(,CP,),Complements 补语,Ex 11(1),Modifiers 修饰语,Specify optionally expressible properties of heads:,manner,and,time,Modifier,Examples,N:,AP,a very careful boy,V:,AdvP,read carefully;carefully read,V:,PP,open with care,The Expanded XP rule:,XP (Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod),Ex 9(1),Exercise,the pretty lady in the room,read it carefully,open the book with care,Sentences(the S rule),S,NP VP,S,NP,VP,NP,Det N V Det N,A boy found the evidence,S,NP infl VP,InflP(=S),NP,VP,Infl,Sentences(the S rule),Head,(tense&agreement),Infl realized by a,tense,label,InflP（=S）,NP,VP,NP,Det N,Pst,V Det N,A boy,found the evidence,Infl,Infl realized by an,auxiliary,InflP（=S）,VP,NP,NP,Det N V Det N,A boy,will,find the evidence,Infl,Ex 9(2),Ex 11(2),Transformations 转换,Auxiliary movement(inversion),Do,insertion,Deep structure&surface structure,Wh,-movement,Move and constraints on transformations,Auxiliary movement(inversion),Inversion,Move Infl to the,left,of the subject NP.,C,CP,S,Det N Infl V,the train,will,arrive,NP,Inversion(revised)Move Infl to C.,E.g.:,Will the train arrive?,VP,Auxiliary movement(inversion),CP,S,C,NP,Infl Det N V,Will,the train arrive,eInfl,VP,Ex 13(a),Do,insertion,Insert interrogative,do,into an empty Infl position.,CP,C,S,NP Infl VP,1)Birds fly,CP,CP,C,C,S,S,Infl NP Infl VP,NP Infl VP,2)Birds,do,fly,3),Do,birds,e,fly,E.g.:,Birds fly.,Do birds fly?,E.g.:,Will the train arrive?,The XP rule,the train will arrive,Transformations,Will the train arrive,Deep structure&surface structure,Deep structure,Surface structure,The organization of the syntactic component,The XP rule,Deep structure,transformations,Surface structure,Subcategorization restricts choice of complements,Wh,-movement,Wh,questions,：,What,can you talk about?,What languages,can you speak?,Deep structures:,You can talk about,what,.,You can speak,what languages,.,Wh,-movement,Move a,wh,phrase to,the beginning,of the sentence.,What language,can,you,speak,?,What,can,you,talk about,?,?,To what precise place should the wh phrase be moved,Move a,wh,phrase to the,specifier position,under CP.,Ex 13(b),Wh,-movement,(Revised),But:,Who won the game?,CP,VP,V NP,won,the game,S,NP,e,NP,Who,C,Infl,Pst,Ex 13(c),Wh,-movement,(Revised),Wh Movement can apply to relative clause.,E.g.,She has finally found the man,whom she loves,.,Relative clause:1)to,modify the N modifier of an NP,2)itself:a CP,Ex 12,Move,&constraints on transformations,All movement rules,Move,Constraints:,Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position,but not to a more distant C position.,E.g.,Geoffrey should know whether the train might be late,.,No element may be removed from a coordinate structure.,E.g.,The author might write a story or a poem.,