语言学导论第四章.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Syntactic,SYNTACTIC is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures,Syntactic,Positional Relation,位置关系,Relation of substitutability,替代关系,Relation of co-occurrence,同现关系,Positional Relation,位置关系,Position relation refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.,(a)The teacher saw the students.,(b)The students saw the teacher.,Grammatical Construction and Its Constituents,Grammatical Construction,Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes,.,Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Several constituents together form a construction:,the girl(NP),ate the apple(VP),the girl ate the apple(S),Relation of co-occurrence,同现关系,It means the words of different sets of clauses may permit,or require,the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a part of a sentence,前置 名词短语 后跟,A pretty girl smiles,The tallest boy sings,The African man cries,A 句子,B,the boy,C,Ate the apple,直接成分分析法 IC分析法,Analysis(直接成分分析法):to divide the sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.（把句子按其组成部分/成分用两进制切分法/二分法一直划到最小的语法单位又称最终成分词素。）,The advantage of IC Analysis,not only shows linear relationship,but also hierarchical（结构上的）ones.,helps to account for the ambiguity of certain constructions.,A disadvantage of IC Analysis,There will be a problem as to where to make the next cut.This is called discontinuity and such constituents are called discontinuous constituents（非连续成分）.e.g.look,up,bring,in,help,out,look forward to,etc.,直接成分分析法把话语一直分到词素，忽略了词和习语作为词汇单位的整体作用。如：look,up,bring,in,help,out,look forward to,三长两短，七上八下，如果切分到词素，就会忽视习语的整体意义，从而破坏语义的完整性。,tree diagrams(树形法）,语类 短语类,N=名词 NP=名词短语,V=动词 AP=形容词短语,A=形容词 VP=动词短语,P=介词 PP=介词短语,Det=限定词 S=句子或小句,Adv=副词,Conj=连词,Phrase Structure,Tree diagram,S,NP VP,Det N V NP,Det N,The girl ate the apple,Bracketing（括号法）,Bracketing,is not as common in use,but it is an economic notation in representing theconstituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.,(The)(girl)(ate)(the)(apple),S,NP,Det,The,N,girl,VP,V,ate,NP,Det,the,N,apple,Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions (向心结构和离心结构),Endocentric Constructions is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,该结构的分布在功能上相当于它的一个或多个成分，即一个词或词组可确定为中心或中心词,These two oldest stone bridges.,Will be leaving,Very late,head,head,head,Exocentric Constructions(离心结构）,It refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.,一组句法上相互联系的词组，词组内的任何一个词在功能上不等于整个词组,The,boy smiled,.(任意成分不能代替整个句子成分),He hid,behind the door,.(任意成分不能作为副词短语分),He,kicked the ball,.(任意成分不能代表动宾结构),John,seemed angry,.(如果这两者分开，系表结构不复存在),Coordination and subordination,(并列关系与从属关系),Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and,but and or.,名词短语的并列(Coordination of NPs),the lady the tiger,动词短语的并列(Coordination of VPs),go to the library read a book,介词短语的并列(Coordination of PPs),down the stairs out the door,形容词短语的并列(Coordination of APs),quite expensive very beautiful,句子的并列(Coordination of Ss),John loves Mary Mary loves John too,Subordination,Subordination,refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status,one being dependent upon the other,and usually a constituent of the other.,two,dogs,Head,(My brother),can,drink,(wine).,Head,Swimming,in the lake,(is fun).,Head,(The pepper was),hot,beyond endurance,.,Head,Subordinate clauses,Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents.There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:,complement clauses,adjunct clauses,relative clauses,John believes that the airplane was invented by an Irishman.（宾语从句）,Elizabeth opened her presents before John finished his dinner.（状语从句）,The woman that I love is moving to the south.（关系从句）,4.6,Recursiveness,(递归性),Recursiveness,:,mainlymeansthataphrasalconstituentcanbeembeddedwithinanotherconstituenthavingthesamecategory,递归性主要指一个短语成分能被嵌入到另一个有着相同范畴的成分中。,Ex.,That house in Beijing,The garden of,that house in Beijing,The tree in the garden of,that house in Beijing,A bird on the tree in the garden of,that house in Beijing,Johns sister,Johns sister,husband,Johns sister,husbands uncle,Johns sisters,husbands uncles daughter,ect,.,But it has become an umberlla term such important linguistic phenomena as,coordination,and,subordination,conjoining(连接),and,embedding(嵌入)，hypotactic(从属关系),and,paratactic并列关系)。,How long can a scentence be,？,Theoretically,there is no limit to the number of embedding one relative clause into another relative clause,so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.,All these are means to extend sentences.,The same holds true for nominal clause and adverbial clauses.,Ex.I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new,Recursiveness,together with openness,is generally regarded as the core of creativity of language.,4.6.1,Conjoining,(连接),Conjoingcoordination,.,Conjunctions,;,and,but,and,or,.,Ex,.,John bought a hat,and,his wife bought a handbag.,Give me liberty,or,give me death,.,4.6.2,Embedding(嵌入),Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination.,Ex,.,I saw the man,who had visited you last,year,.(,relative clause,关系从句,),I dont know,whether Professor Li needs,this book,.(,complement clause,补语从句,),If you listened to me,you wouldnt make mistake.(,adverbial clause,状语从句,),4.7,Beyond the Sentence,Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text,which leads to the emergence of text linguistics(,篇章语言学,)and discourse analysis（,话语分析,）.,4.7.1 Sentence Connection(句子连接),The notions of,hypotactic,(主从的)and,paratactic,(并列的)relation can also be applied to the study of syntactic relations between sentences.,Hypotactic从属分句(subordinate clauses);,Ex.You can phone the doctor if you like,.,However,I very much doubt whether he is in.,We live near the sea.,So,we enjoy a healthy climate,.,Paratactic,并列分句,（coordinate clauses）:,Ex,.,In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer.In Beijing it is hot and dry.,He dictated the letter.She wrote it.,The door was open.He walked in.,4.7.2 Cohesion(衔接),Cohesion,:,is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax.It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text,and defines it as a text.,Cohesiveness连贯,:,can be realize by employing various cohesive device(衔接手段):,conjunction 连词 ellipsis 省略 lexical repetition 词汇复现 lexical collocation 词汇搭配 reference 指称 substitution替代,“,Did she get there at,six,?”,“No,(she got there),earlier,(than six).”(Ellipsis),“Shall we invite,Bill,?”,“No.I cant stand,the man,.”(Lexical collocation),He couldnt open,the door.It,was locked tight.(Reference),“Why dont you use your own,recorder,?”,“I dont have,one,.”(Substitution),I wanted to help him.,Unfortunately,it was too late.(Logical connection),Thank you,