新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 整理.doc

Cｈapteｒ　１： Intｒｏductioｎ
1、Ｌｉnｇuistiｃｓ： 语言学Ｉt ｉｓ ｇｅnerａｌｌy　definｅｄ as thｅ　sｃｉeｎtifiｃ study of lanｇuage、
( Lingｕistｉcs stuｄies nｏt　anｙ pａrｔiｃuｌar　ｌanguagｅ ,bｕｔ it studiｅs langｕaｇe in　general)
2、Ｇenｅral lｉngｕistｉｃs:普通语言学 The　ｓtｕdy　ｏf ｌanguａｇe as　a whｏle is　called ｇenｅral linguistｉcs、
（lａｎｇｕａge ｉs　a plｉcateｄ eｎtity wｉth　mulｔiple layeｒs　and facets )
3、Language:　Lanｇuaｇe　ｉs a　sｙstem of　ａrbitrarｙ　ｖｏcal symｂols used　foｒ human mｕniｃaｔioｎ、
4、dｅscriptive　(描述性):A linguistiｃ ｓtｕdy aiｍs to dｅsｃriｂe　ａnd analyze ｔhe laｎguage people　aｃtｕally　uｓe、 ﻫ5、prｅsｃriｐtｉｖe(规定性):　It　ａimｓ tｏ lay ｄowｎ ruｌes ｆor “correｃt aｎd stａndarｄ”　beｈavｉoｒs、
i、e、 what they　ｓhoulｄ ｓay ａnd　what ｔhｅy shouｌｄ not ｔｏ say、
6、ｓynｃhronic(共时语言学）: thｅ ｄescriptｉon oｆ lａnｇuage at soｍe poｉnt ｏf timｅ iｎ ｈiatｏｒｙ　ﻫ7、dｉacｈronｉｃ (历时语言学):thｅ descrｉpｔｉoｎ ｏf languagｅ aｓ　it changes ｔhｒough　time
3） 　speech(口语)Wｒiting(书面语)
Theｓｅ ｔhe tｗo　mｅdia oｆ municatｉon、 Moderｎ linguiｓtｉｃs regａrds ｔhe　　spoken　languaｇｅ as pｒｉｍary,　noｔ ｔｈe wriｔｔen、 (ｓｐeecｈ iｓ　ｐrior　ｔｏ　wｒｉtinｇ)
8、langue(语言）: ｒｅfers to　aｂstract lingｕiｓtic　ｓｙstｅm ｓhared by aｌl ｔhｅ membｅｒs of　the speｅch munity、　
Ｉt　iｓ ｔhe seｔ of coｎvenｔiｏns anｄ rules whｉch laｎguａgｅ users ａll haｖe to ａbide by、　Such as: Ｉn Englｉｓh　sｅｎtence ｍust haｖe subｊeｃｔ and　predｉｃatｅ、
9、ｐａrｏle(言语）:refｅｒs to　tｈe rｅａｌiｚatｉoｎ of langue in actｕａｌ ｕsｅ、
It ｉs concrete uｓe of ｔhｅ　conventiｏns　aｎd　ｔｈe ａpplｉcatｉon of thｅ　rulｅs、 (Saussｕrｅ )
10、peteｎce（语言能力）: ｔhe ｉdｅａｌ ｕｓｅｒ’s　knｏｗledge of ｔhｅ ruｌes ｏf his lａnguagｅ ﻫ11、perfoｒmance(语言应用)：thｅ actual　reａlization　oｆ ｔhｉｓ　kｎoｗｌedgｅ in linguistiｃ muｎication、 　(Chomsky)
ｔrａｄiｔional　gｒammａr　ａnd　modern liｎguｉstｉｃs
1、liｎguiｓticｓ is deｓｃriptive,ｗhile　tｒadｉtional grａmｍar is ｐrｅscｒiptiveﻫ２、moｄern linguistics rｅｇaｒｄs the sｐoｋｅｎ languａge　as prｉｍａry,not　the writｅr、
3、 aｌｓo　ｉｎ that it　does ｎot foｒｃｅ languageｓ ｉnto a lａtin－based fｒamework、
Funcｔions　of languａｇｅ、
１、the deｓｃriｐｔive　funｃtｉｏn、
2、　ｔhe eｘpressｉｖe fuｎction
3、thｅ　soｃｉaｌ　function
Chａｐｔer 2： Phonoｌogｙ音系学
phoneｔics：the ｓｔｕdy of　ｔhe ｐｈｏnic mｅdium ｏｆ　ｌanguage；　
iｔ ｉs concernｅd wiｔh alｌ　the　soｕnds　tｈａt ｏccuｒ　ｉn　the　wｏrld’ ｓ ｌaｎgｕａｇes９、
Tｈｅ tｈree ｂranｃhｅｓ of ｐhｏnetics
（1)、Articｕｌatorｙ ｐhonｅｔics （发音语音学) （longest　histoｒy)
（２、)Audｉｔory phonetics (听觉语音学）
(３)Aｃouｓtic phonｅticｓ　(声学语音学）
2、 Ｓpeech　oｒganｓ: threｅ imｐｏrtａnt　areaｓ
⑴Ｐhａrｙnｇｅａl　caｖiｔy咽腔 ----　the thｒoat;
⑵Ｔhe　oｒal ｃavｉty口腔--－-　ｔhe mouth;
⑶Ｎａsaｌ cavｉty –鼻腔---　the nｏｓe、
Ｔhe　ｐｒinciple　souｒｃｅ such mｏdifｉｃatｉonｓ is the tonguｅ、
The tｏngue is the most flｅxiｂｌe、　
Internatiｏnａｌ　Pｈｏnetic　Aｌｐhabet　[ＩPＡ]: thｅ basic principlｅ of　the IＰA is uｓing　oｎe　ｌeｔｔeｒ seｌecteｄ froｍ　ｍajｏｒ Eｕrｏpeａn ｌanｇｕaｇeｓ to　represｅnt　one speeｃh　sounｄ、
Broad ｔranscｒiptiｏn 宽式音标、 Ｔhｅ　tｒanscｒipｔｉon of sｐeeｃh ｓounｄｓ with letter ｓymbｏｌs　only、
Ｎarroｗ transcｒｉption窄式音标The　transcｒipｔiｏｎ　of　ｓpeeｃh soｕnd　witｈ letterｓ sｙmｂols and ｔｈe　ｄiacritiｃs、
Aspirated　anｄ ｕｎaspirateｄ　
1). ｐhoｎｏlogy: 音系学It ａｉms ｔo　discoｖeｒ how speech ｓｏunｄs ｉn　a　lanｇuagｅ　foｒm pattｅrns ａnd　how　tｈese sounds　arｅ used to　conｖey meaｎiｎg in lｉnguistiｃ munｉcatioｎ、　　
４、 Ｐhone, pｈoneme, aｌlｏpｈoｎe
Ａ phｏne音素 is ａ phonｅtｉc unit or　segmenｔ、　
Tｈｅ speech ｓoundｓ we hｅar　and proｄuce　durｉng lｉnguｉｓｔiｃ mｕnicａtｉoｎ arｅ ａｌｌ ｐｈｏnes、 Ｐhoneｓ do noｔ neceｓsarily diｓｔiｎguish　mｅaninｇ,　some do, ｓoｍe doｎ’t， e、g、 [ bI:t ] [ ｂIｔ ］, [sｐIt] &　[spＩt］、
A　phoｎeme音位 ｉs　ａ phonoｌogical　uｎｉｔ；　
iｔ ｉs a ｕnit oｆ ｄistinctive ｖalｕe; an abｓtｒact unit, nｏｔ ａ pａrtiｃular ｓound, but ｉt is rｅpｒeseｎted by ａ　ｃertａin　pｈone ｉn ｃｅｒtａin ｐhonetiｃ　cｏntext, ｅ、g、 the　ｐhｏnemｅ /p/　can　bｅ reprｅsented diｆfｅｒeｎtly iｎ [pＩｔ］, [ｔIp] aｎd [spＩt]、
Ａlloｐｈones 音素变体－--－ thｅ phonｅs　thａt ｃａn ｒeprｅseｎt　a　phonemｅ in ｄiffｅrent ｐhoｎetｉc　ｅnvｉrｏnments
sequentｉal rulｅ,
⑴Seqｕential rule(序列规则): rule governing tｈｅ binaｔiｏn oｆ sounds　iｎ ａ particulａr laｎgｕagｅ、
⑵Aｓsｉmilａtion　ruｌe(同化规则）：　rｕlｅ assｉｍiｌating one soｕnd to anｏther bｙ cｏpying ｆｅａturｅｓ ｏf sｅquｅntiaｌ phoneme,ｔhｕs　mａkiｎg ｔｈe twｏ ｐhones　ｓｉmilaｒ、
⑶Ｄeletｉon ruｌe(省略规则）:　rule goverｎiｎg the　ｄeletｉon　of ａ　sound in ａ　ｃeｒｔain phｏｎetic conｔｅxｔ ａlthougｈ it ｉs rｅpreｓented　ｉn spelliｎg、
6、 Suprasegmenｔａl fｅaｔures(超切分特征)
⑴Streｓs
Woｒd　strｅsｓ and sentｅｎce sｔreｓs
⑵Tｏne声调
Toｎｅｓ are　piｔcｈ varｉatioｎs，which　arｅ　cａuseｄ　by the difｆｅrinｇ rａtes of　vibration of the ｖｏcal coｒｄs、
English　is　nｏt a　tｏne　langｕａge, bｕｔ Chiｎｅse ｉｓ、
⑶Ｉntonation语调
Ｗｈｅｎ pitcｈ, ｓtrｅｓｓ and ｌeｎgth variaｔions arｅ tｉed to ｔhe　senteｎｃe raｔhｅr ｔhａn to　tｈe ｗord, tｈey ａｒe　colｌecｔｉveｌy　kｎown as intoｎaｔｉon、
Eｎglｉsｈ　has thrｅe　typｅs ｏf intonatioｎ that ａre most ｆrequenｔly used：
falling tone （mattｅr of fact ｓtateｍeｎt)
rising　toｎe　(doubｔs or　qｕestｉon)
the fall-risｅ　tone (ｉmplｉed ｍessagｅ)
the fｒise-fall　toｎe (not freｑｕeｎtly uｓeｄ)
　　Foｒ inｓｔaｎce， 　“Ｔhat’s noｔ　tｈe boｏｋ　hｅ wａntｓ、
Chaptｅr 3： Mｏrphology
1). Morｐholｏgy形态学:　refeｒs to ｔhe the sｔｕdy of tｈe ｉnterｎａl　ｓtructure of woｒｄｓ ａnd thｅ rｕｌes ｂｙ which worｄs aｒｅ formｅd
2). Morphemｅ词素: It ｉs the　smaｌleｓｔ mｅaningfｕl uｎit of　languａgｅ、
3). Freｅ moｒpheｍe自由词素：a　morｐhｅme can ｂe a word by　iｔself、
4). Bound moｒｐheme、黏着词素: a ｍｏrｐheme　thaｔ musｔ bｅ attached to　aｎｏtｈer ｏne、
5). Ａｌｌｍｏrpｈs词素变体:the varｉａnｔ forｍs ｏf　a ｍｏｒphｅme
Chapｔｅｒ 4: Syntａx
Ｓｙntaｘ句法学： Ｓyntax iｓ a ｂｒancｈ of linguｉstics that　ｓtudiｅｓ the rulｅs thａt govｅrn the　foｒmatiｏｎ ｏf ｓeｎtenｃes、　
Ｗｏrd－ｌevel catｅgｏrｉｅｓ
1,Majｏr lexicａl caｔegoｒies
２、 mｉnor ｌexical　cａｔeｇｏｒiｅs
To　deｔeｒｍine a worｄ’ｓ ｃategorie，thｒeｅ　cｒitｅra ａｒｅ uｓuaｌly ｅmploｙeｄ
１、mｅaniｎｇ 2、ｉnflｅctiｏn　3、distｒibｕtioｎ、
Pｈｒａse:syｎｔaｃtｉc ｕｎｉts tｈａｔ ａre built aｒouｎd ａ centaｉｎ　wｏrd cateｇｏry　
pleｍｅntizers ｗordｓ wｈｉｃｈ　introduce the　ｓｅntence ｐｌｅmeｎt
pｌｅment clａｕse the　senｔｅnce　ｉｎtroｄuｃed　by the cmｏmplemｅntiｚerｓ　
D-sｔｒuctuｒe：foｒmｅd by the XP　ruｌe iｎ ａｃcorｄance with the heaｄ’s subcatｅｇorｉzａtioｎ propertｉeｓ
S-sｔｒuｃｔure:ｃorrｅspｏnding to ｔhe final syntactic fｏrm　oｆ ｔhｅ　sentence whiｃｈ resulｔs ｆorｍ　apｐropriaｔe ｔransfoｒｍａtion 、
Chａpter　5:　Seｍantｉcｓ
Semanｔics: 语义学can be ｓimpｌy ｄefｉned aｓ tｈｅ ｓｔudy of　meaｎing、
1） The　ｎａｍiｎg tｈeory(命名论)
Olｄesｔ notｉons　concering　meaninｇ、ｍｏst pｒｉmｉtive　one、　
It wａs propoｓeｄ bｙ　tｈe　aｎcient Greeｋ ｓcｈolaｒ　Plato、
words aｒe just namｅs ｏｒ　lａbｅｌs for　ｔhiｎgs、　
2)The coｎｃｅpｔｕaｌist vｉｅw(意念论)
It ｈolds ｔhat tｈeｒe iｓ no diｒｅct linｋ ｂetｗeeｎ ａ　liｎ-gｕistｉc form and whａｔ it rｅfeｒs to、 Ｉｎ tｈe iｎterｐretation　of　meaning, thｅy ａre ｌinｋed　thｒough　the mediaｔiｏn　of conｃeptｓ in ｔｈe mind、
3）Contextualiｓm(语境论）
①Meaning　should be　ｓtudｉed ｉｎ teｒｍs of situａtion, use, coｎtｅxｔ—eleｍｅnts　clｏsely linｋｅd witｈ　langｕaｇｅ behavioｒ、 Tｗo types of　ｃontｅxtｓ ａre ｒecogｎizｅｄ:
②Situational ｃｏnｔeｘt:　sｐatiotemｐｏral ｓiｔuａｔiｏｎ
③Ｌinｇuｉsｔic　context: the　probａbilｉtｙ oｆ a wｏｒｄ’s co-ｏccurrencｅ or coｌｌocation、
④For　example， “ｂlack”　ｉｎ ｂlack　hair & black　coｆfee, or black　sheep　differs　in meaninｇ; “Thｅ　preｓideｎt ｏf ｔhe Unｉｔeｄ Ｓｔaｔes” caｎ　mｅan either the ｐresidenｔ or pｒesiｄeｎcy iｎ difｆerent siｔuaｔｉon、
4） Ｂｅhａvioriｓm(行为主义论)
Bｌｏｏｍfｉeｌｄ　
①Beｈaｖｉoｒiｓts　attempteｄ　to ｄefine mｅａning as “the situatioｎ　in which the speaker utｔers it and ｔhｅ responｓｅ ｉt calls foｒｔh iｎ　ｔhe ｈｅaｒer”、
②The story　of　Jack　ａnd Jill:
　 Jill 　 　 　 Jａｃk
S__＿＿___＿_r--－－----ｓ_____＿__＿Ｒ
3、 Sｅｎｓe ａｎd　referencｅ
①Senｓe---- iｓ　coｎcerned with ｔｈe inｈerｅｎt meａning oｆ the linguｉstiｃ foｒm、 It　is　the　colｌectioｎ　oｆ alｌ tｈe features　of　tｈe ｌinguistｉc ｆoｒm; ｉｔ is　ａbstraｃt ａｎd　dｅ-conteｘｔuaｌizｅd、
②Refeｒｅｎce----what a lｉｎｇｕistic ｆorm rｅfeｒｓ ｔo in ｔhe　ｒeaｌ， physicaｌ　wｏrld； iｔ ｄealｓ wiｔｈ　tｈe relationship beｔｗeｅn the　lｉnｇｕistｉc ｅleｍent　anｄ the ｎon-linｇuistic wｏrld oｆ　eｘperiencｅ、　
4、 Ｍajoｒ seｎse reｌatiｏns
Synoｎymy(同义关系)
Ｓynonｙｍy reｆerｓ ｔo the saｍeness or　ｃlｏsｅ ｓｉｍiｌaｒｉty　ｏｆ ｍeaning、
Worｄs that are cｌoｓe　in mｅaning are　ｃaｌlｅd synonｙms、 同义词
pｌｅte ｓynonyms, i、e、 sｙnonymy that　are muｔuａlｌy ｓubstｉｔutablｅ ｕｎdeｒ all　cirｃuｍsｔancｅs, are rare
Hｏmonyｍy(同音／同形异义)
Homonyｍｙ:　Hｏmonｙmy reｆerｓ ｔo the pｈenomeｎｏn　ｔhat words having ｄiffｅreｎt meaninｇs　hａve the ｓamｅ foｒm,
(1）Homｏpｈｏnes(同音异义): Wｈen　two　ｗords aｒe ｉdentｉcaｌ in sｏunｄ， tｈeｙ arｅ caｌｌed ｈomophoｎes、
　ｅ、g、 rａin/ｒｅigｎ、
(２)Hoｍoｇrapｈs(同形异义): Wｈeｎ　ｔwo words are　iｄentical iｎ spｅlling,　tｈey ａre　ｈｏmograpｈs、
e、ｇ、 teaｒ v、 / tear　ｎ、
（３)plｅｔｅ homonyms（同音同形异义）: Ｗheｎ　ｔwo wｏrdｓ aｒe ideｎticaｌ in boｔh sound　and ｓpｅlling, theｙ　ａrｅ calｌed pleｔe homonyms、
e、g、 faｓt v、　／　ｆast adj、; scaｌe　v、 /scalｅ、　n、
Hypｏnymy(下义关系)
Hｙponymｙ: Hyｐonyｍｙ reｆers tｏ ｔhe sｅnse　reｌatｉoｎ　ｂｅｔween　a ｍore general，　ｍoｒｅ　ｉｎｃｌuｓiｖe word and　a ｍorｅ specｉfｉｃ wｏｒｄ、
eg、superｏrdiｎate： flower
hｙponyms: ｒｏｓe,　ｔulip， carnａtiｏn, lｉｌｙ
Aｎtoｎｙmy(反义关系)
tｈe tｅｒm　ａntｏnyｍy is used fｏr ｏpposｉteness ｏf ｍeaning
1) Grａdａbｌe antonymｓ(等级反义词)----tｈere are ofｔen intermeｄiaｔe foｒmｓ ｂｅｔweｅn tｈe twｏ mｅmｂers of a　paiｒ, ｅ、g、 oｌd-youｎg，　ｈot－cold, taｌl-shｏrt　…
2) plｅmentａｒy　antonymｓ(互补反义词）---－ｔhe ｄenial of ｏne memｂeｒ of　the ｐair imｐlies ｔｈｅ assｅrｔion ｏf　the otheｒ, e、ｇ、 alｉve－dead, mａle-female　…
3) Ｒelatiｏｎaｌ　oｐｐoｓitｅs(关系反义词)－－--exhｉbiｔs the rｅversal of tｈe　reｌationship ｂetｗeen the ｔwo　ｉtemｓ,　e、g、 husband-wife, fａther-son，　dｏcｔor-pａtieｎt, buy-sell, let-reｎt, emploｙer－eｍployee, give-rｅceive，　abｏve-ｂｅlow …　
2) Thｅｒｅ arｅ　two　aspｅｃts　to sｅｎtence meａnｉng:　
1、ｇramｍaｔｉcal　mｅａｎing
２、 sｅmantｉc　meaniｎｇ, e、ｇ、
ｓelectｉoｎal restrｉｃｔioｎｓ、
Wｈether a　senｔencｅ is ｓemａnticaｌｌｙ　ｍeaningｆul is ｇoverned by rulｅｓ
ｅｇ、 consｔraints　on　ｗhａｔ　leｘical ｉteｍs　ｃan　ｇo ｗｉtｈ what otｈｅrs　
Predicａtｉon　aｎａlysiｓ-－-- a way　tｏ anaｌyze sｅｎｔence meaniｎg　（Britｉsh Ｇ、　Leech）、
Chａpteｒ 6: Pragmａtics
1). Pragｍatiｃs: 语用学the sｔｕdy oｆ hｏｗ spｅakｅrs of ａ langｕａge uｓe ｓentｅｎｃes to　eｆfeｃt succeｓｓful mｕｎicａtion、
Pragmatics and　semａntiｃs are　both　ｌｉnguistiｃ stｕdies oｆ　meanｉng、
What essentiａlly ｄistinguishｅｓ seｍａntiｃs and praｇｍatｉcs is whｅｔher the conteｘt　ｏf use iｓ ｃｏｎｓidered　ｉn tｈe ｓtudｙ　of meaning
Iｆ iｔ is not ｃonsiderｅｄ,　ｔhe ｓtuｄｙ is confined　to　tｈe areａ oｆ tｒａditionaｌ　ｓemａｎtｉcs;　iｆ ｉｔ ｉs consideｒed， the ｓｔudy iｓ beinｇ carried oｕt　ｉn tｈe　ａｒea oｆ prａgｍaｔｉｃｓ、
⑴Auｓtiｎ’ｓ ｎew　mｏｄel　oｆ sｐeeｃｈ ａcts
Utteｒancｅ meaning: the　mｅaniｎg ｏｆ　an ｕtteraｎcｅ ｉs concrete, ａｎｄ context－dependeｎt、　Uttｅranｃe is ｂasｅd on　sentｅnce meａning； it ｉs rｅaliｚaｔion　oｆ ｔhｅ abstract　meanｉng　ｏf　ａ　sｅntｅnce ｉn　ａ　real ｓituatiｏn　oｆ muｎｉｃatｉoｎ, or　simply iｎ a　ｃoｎtext、　
Cooperａtivｅ Principle(CＤ):Paul Gricｅ、His ideａ is that to　　coｎｖerｓe wiｔｈ eacｈ　ｏｔheｒ, ｔｈe pａrticiｐanｔs ｍｕst first oｆ all be　ｗiｌling to cooperate; otherwise, iｔ woulｄ ｎoｔ be　poｓsiblｅ　ｆor tｈem to cａrrｙ ｏｎ thｅ taｌｋ、　
３)Prｉnciple oｆ conveｒsation (Pauｌ Grｉce）
Thｅ maxim of quantity （数量准则)
Ｍake yｏur　contｒibuｔｉoｎ ａｓ infｏrmaｔive as rｅquirｅd (ｆor the curreｎt　pｕrpｏｓe　ｏf　tｈe　ｅxｃhaｎge)、 （使自己所说得话达到当前交谈目得所要求得详尽程度。）
Dｏ not ｍaｋe yoｕr cｏnｔriｂｕtion　more infｏrmａtivｅ thaｎ　is　required、 (不能使自己所说得话比所要求得更详尽。)
he　ｍaxim　of　ｑuality　(质量准则）
Do　nｏt saｙ ｗｈat　yｏu ｂeｌieve　to be falsｅ、(不要说自己认为不真实得话。)
Ｄo not ｓaｙ　thaｔ for　which ｙｏu lack adequatｅ eｖidｅnce、(不要说自己缺乏足够证据得话。)
The ｍaxim　of reｌatiｏn（关联准则)
Ｂｅ ｒeｌevanｔ、（说话要贴切。)
The maxim of manneｒ （方式准则)
Avoid oｂscurity ｏｆ exprｅssｉoｎ、 （避免晦涩得词语。)
Avoｉd ambｉｇuｉty、　(避免歧义。)
Be bｒief　(avoid ｕｎneｃｅssaｒy proｌixitｙ) (说话要简短,避免累赘。)
Be ｏrdeｒｌｙ、　(说话要有条理。)
Chａpｔer 8
Soｃioliｎguｉｓｔｉcs 社会语言学The suｂ-fｉelｄ　of ｌinguｉstics　ｔhａt　studｉｅs　ｔhe relａtion bｅtweｅn lanｇｕａgｅ and ｓociｅtｙ， ｂetｗｅen thｅ　use ｏｆ laｎguagｅ and ｔhｅ soｃｉaｌ strucｔures in which　thｅ　usｅrs of　lａnguage live、
speeｃｈ ｖariｅtｙ　言语变体refers ｔo anｙ distiｎguiｓhablｅ　forｍ of speecｈ ｕsｅｄ ｂy　ａ spｅaｋeｒ　ｏｒ　a gｒoup of speakeｒs、
Liｎｇuiｓtic repertoｉre语言库tｈe toｔaｌity of lｉnｇuistｉc　varieｔies posｓessed by ａn inｄividual ｃｏnstitutes ｈｉs　ｌｉnguistｉc　repertoire、　
Haｌlidaｙ’s　ｒeｇｉsｔeｒ theory、
ａccｏrdｉｎg to Halliｄay (Brｉｔish), “laｎguagｅ ｖａries ａs its ｆunｃｔｉon varies； ｉt　diｆｆeｒs ｉn　dｉｆfｅreｎt sｉｔuatｉｏnｓ、”
Rｅgiｓter 语域the typｅ of　lａngｕａｇe whｉch iｓ seleｃted ａｓ apprｐpｒiatｅ ｔo　tｈe type of　situaｔioｎ　is a　Reｇｉｓtｅr
fiｅld ｏf ｄｉsｃｏurse,　话语范围Iｔ caｎ ｂe eｉtｈeｒ ｔechniｃａl or noｎ-technicａl、　
tｅnor　oｆ ｄiscｏurｓe, 话语意旨Iｔ refers to ｔhe role oｆ relａｔionｓhｉp in the situaｔion iｎ　quｅstion
ｍoｄｅ　ｏｆ　dｉsｃouｒse话语方式It reｆers to thｅ mｅans oｆ mｕnｉcａtioｎ
Ｆive ｓtageｓ ｏｆ　foｒmaliｔy
Ｉntimａte 　Cａsuaｌ 　Consuｌｔative　 Ｆormａl Froｚｅn
Biｌｉnguaｌiｓm双语现象
　Ｉn soｍｅ sｐeecｈ　mｕｎｉtｉeｓ, two　lａｎguages ａre useｄ sｉde bｙ side with eacｈ hａving a　differenｔ　role tｏ ｐlａy；　and language　swiｔｃhing occuｒｓ when　ｔhe　situaｔion chａｎges、　Thiｓ consｔituｔｅs the situation of Bｉlｉｎｇuａlism、　
diglosｓia　Accordiｎg　to Ferguｓoｎ　(19５9), refeｒs to a socioliｎｇuisｔｉc ｓｉtuation　siｍilaｒ　to　bilingｕalisｍ、
cｈapteｒ 9
cuｌｔuｒe 文化in　a brｏａd sense，　refleｃts a　tｏtａｌ way of　ｌifｅ　ｏｆ a pｅｏpｌe in a munｉty、 in a nａｒｒｏw　ｓｅnsｅ， cuｌturｅ may refｅr　ｔo　loｃal　or ｓｐecifｉc　praｃtｉcｅ,　bｅliefｓ　or　ｃｕｓtｏms、
thｅ　rｅlatioｎ　ｏf ｌanguaｇe　to culturｅ is thａt ｏf　part　ｔo　wｈoｌe、
discｏursｅ　ｍｕｎｉtiｅs 话语社会tｈe mon ways in ｗhich membｅrs oｆ thｅ ｓocial　groｕp use similar language ｔｏ ｍeeｔ　ｔｈｅir　needs、
linguiｓｔic relatｉｖｉｔy 语言相对性tｏ pｕt　iｔ　simpｌy, different　languagｅ　oｆfer pｅoｐle ｄifferent waｙs of eｘpｒeｓsｉｎg ｔhe wｏrｌd arｏｕnｄ， ａnd　ｓo they ｔｈiｎk ａnd speak　diffｅrｅntly
ａn linguistｉc sign　maｙ ｓimultaneously havｅ ａ
denoｔaｔiv meanｉngs、e,　
cｏnnｏtaｔive meaｎiｎgｓ、,
iconic　meａniｎｇｓ、
thｒｅe forｍs of　culｔｕｒe conｔacｔ ａre iｄｅnｔiｆied:
ａcculturatｉon，
ａssiｍｉｌatｉon,　
aｍalｇaｍatiｏn
thｒｏuｇh ｍｕniｃatｉoｎ， soｍｅ elementｓ ｏf　ｃulture A ｅｎter cｕｌtｕre B and bee pａrt of cｕlturｅ B,thus bringiｎg about cｕltuｒaｌ　diffuｓｉｏn
cｈａｐteｒ 10
lａnｇuaｇe acquisiｔioｎ语言习得 rｅｆeｒs ｔｏ　a　child's acquisitiｏn　of ｈis ｍotheｒ tonｇｕｅ、　
ｔhｒee　difｆeｒenｔ tｈｅｏrieｓ concerniｎg　ho ｌanguage ｉs ｌeａrnｅd:　
thｅ ｂeｈaｖioｒiｓt,
tｈe　innatisｔ,
ｔhe inｔeｒaｔionist、　
Ｃhomskｙ proposed tｈaｔ ｈｕman　bｅinｇ aｒe born ｗith an innaｔe ability　ｋnown known aｓ laｎguage acｑuiｓitiｏｎ device or ｏrLＡD、latｅr　Chomｓky　referrｅd this inｎate　enｄowment as　Univerｓａl Grａmmar、
ｔhｅ interａctionisisｔ vｉｅw hｏlds tｈａt language　deveｌops ａs　ａ reｓult oｆ　ｔｈｅ plex　interplay betweeｎ thｅ hｕmａｎ chaｒacteristiｃs ｏｆ ｔhe　chiｌd ａnd thｅ environment in　ｗhiｃh　he　growｓ、
ｃritical perｉod Hｙpotｈｅsis 关键期假说Eric Leｎneｂeｒｇ argueｄ that the　LAD, like otheｒ bｉological fuｎcｔiｏn, works sucｃessｆｕlly only ｗhen iｔ ｉs ｓtimｕlated aｔ the rｉgｈt timｅ　—a ｓpecific aｎd　limited time peｒiod foｒ　ｌanguａge aｃquisiｔioｎ、
chapｔer 1１
second langｕage acqｕisｉｔiｏn　第二语言习得reｆers tｏ ｔｈe　ｓystｅmａｔic　sｔuｄｙ ｏf ｈow ｏｎe　person　aｃｑuireｓ　ａ ｓeｃoｎd ｌaｎｇuaｇe subsequent ｔｏ his　nativｅ ｌaｎｇｕaｇe
intｅrlanguagｅ 中介语waｓ estａｂlｉshed as learners ＇ｓ ｉnｄepｅnｄent ｓystem　of ｔｈe secｏnｄ lａngｕaｇe, whicｈ is　ｏｆ　nｅｉｔhｅr ｔhｅ native ｌanguagｅ nor ｔｈe second　ｌanguaｇe,　but a cｏntinuum　or approｘimatｉon fｒoｍ ｏne extreｍe oｆ his　nａtive lanｇｕaｇｅ to ｔｈe ｏthｅｒ　of the seｃonｄ language、
among the three ｉmpｏrｔant characｔeｒｉｓtcs: systｅmａtｉcｉty, pｅrmｅability,　foｓsiliｚaｔiｏn
inｐut hypotｈesiｓ输入假说： Kｒashen　
Krashen　put　foｒward that lｅarnｅrs advaｎce　tｈｅir lａngｕagｅ　ｌｅａrnｉｎｇ　gｒadualｌy by receiving "prehenｓｉble input　"
chapter 1２
nｅurliｎguistics 神经语言学is thｅ sｔuｄy ｏf two　ｒelaｔed arｅas: laｎguage disordeｒ and ｔhｅ relaｔionｓhip betweｅn　ｔｈｅ　bｒain aｎd lanｇuaｇｅ、
iｔ　incｌuｄes rｅseａrｃh into hoｗ　tｈe braｉn　iｓ sｔructuｒed aｎｄ whａt functiｏn　each　part　ｏf ｔhe brａｉn　peｒformｓ, how　and in　whiｃh parts　of the　ｂrain languaｇｅ iｓ sｔｏｒｅs, and how　ｄａｍaｇｅ to the brａin aｆfects