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Basic Machining Ｏperationｓ and Cuｔting Techｎoｌoｇｙ
Basic　Mａchiniｎg Oｐｅratioｎｓ
Ｍａchinｅ ｔools haｖe　ｅvoｌved from ｔhｅ　ｅarｌy fｏot—poweｒed　latｈes oｆ tｈe Eｇyｐtiａns anｄ Ｊohｎ Wilkinsｏn's　boring　ｍill、 Theｙ ａre desｉgｎeｄ　to　ｐrovｉｄe rｉgｉd suｐpｏrｔ for ｂotｈ thｅ　work　piece　ａｎｄ the cｕｔting tｏｏl and caｎ precｉseｌy coｎtｒol　ｔｈeir ｒelａtivｅ posｉtionｓ　and the velocity of tｈe　tｏol　witｈ　ｒespecｔ　to the　work　piecｅ、 Basｉcally,　in meｔａl ｃuｔting， a sｈarpened wｅdge—ｓhaｐｅｄ tｏｏl　ｒemｏvｅs　ａ raｔｈeｒ naｒｒow strｉp of metal ｆrom tｈe　suｒfacｅ　ｏf　a duｃtilｅ work ｐiece　in tｈe　ｆorｍ of a　sｅvｅｒｅly deformeｄ ｃhip、 Ｔhe chip iｓ　a　wａsｔe proｄuct　that　is ｃoｎsidｅrabｌy ｓｈortｅr tｈan　tｈｅ ｗork ｐiece ｆｒom wｈich it　cａme ｂut　wiｔh ａ ｃoｒrespoｎｄｉng　ｉncreaｓe　in thiｃknｅss　oｆ ｔhe uncut cｈip、　The ｇｅomeｔrical shape of woｒk ｐiｅce　ｄeｐeｎｄｓ on the　ｓhape　of　the tooｌ　ａnｄ its paｔh　duｒｉｎｇ the　macｈiｎing　opeｒaｔion、
Mosｔ machiｎinｇ　operations　prodｕce　paｒts of　differinｇ geometry、 If a rouｇh　ｃylinｄriｃａl worｋ piｅce revｏlｖeｓ　about　a central axis aｎd the tool peneｔraｔes beneaｔh　iｔｓ　ｓurface　and travels　ｐarallel to　the ｃｅnｔer of rotａｔion, ａ surfａｃe of　reｖolutｉｏn is produced, aｎd　ｔhe opeｒaｔioｎ ｉs called turniｎｇ、 Ｉｆ a hｏllow tubｅ is machｉned oｎ ｔｈe inside in a simｉlａｒ ｍａｎｎeｒ, the　opｅｒatioｎ is cａlled bｏring、 Producing an extｅｒnal　conｉcaｌ surface unｉfｏrmlｙ vaｒyiｎg ｄｉameｔer is　calｌed　ｔaper tuｒnｉng， if the tｏｏｌ pｏｉnｔ trａvｅls in a ｐaｔh oｆ vａrｙing　ｒaｄius，　a cｏｎtｏｕred surfaｃe ｌｉke　that of a bｏwling ｐｉｎ can be ｐroduced; or， ｉf the ｐiece iｓ ｓhｏrt ｅnough　and ｔｈe support ｉｓ sufｆｉcｉenｔly ｒigiｄ， a cｏntouｒeｄ sｕｒfacｅ cｏuld be　pｒoducｅd　ｂy　feeding　a shapｅd ｔooｌ nｏｒmal ｔｏ tｈｅ ａxis oｆ　rｏｔaｔｉon、　Short ｔaperｅd or cylindrｉｃal suｒfaｃeｓ cｏuｌd aｌso be　ｃoｎｔｏur formｅd、
Flａt or pｌａne ｓｕrfaｃes are ｆｒequently ｒequｉrｅd、 Thｅy cａn　bｅ geｎerａted bｙ raｄiａl turning　or　fａｃｉng, in whicｈ　the ｔoｏl　ｐoint　ｍｏvｅｓ normａl to　the axｉs oｆ rｏtation、 In othｅr cases, it iｓ moｒe ｃonｖｅｎient　to hoｌd ｔhe　ｗorｋ ｐiecｅ　sｔeady aｎd reciprｏcａte the tool aｃroｓs iｔ ｉｎ a seｒiｅs of sｔrａｉghｔ-line ｃuts witｈ a ｃrｏsswise fｅed increment ｂｅfｏｒe each cuttｉnｇ strokｅ、 This operaｔion　iｓ ｃaｌlｅd　planninｇ and ｉs cａｒried ｏut　oｎ a sｈａpeｒ、 Foｒ　lａrgeｒ　pieceｓ it is ｅａsieｒ to keep　tｈe ｔool sｔatiｏnaｒy ａｎd ｄrａw thｅ　worｋ　ｐiｅcｅ ｕnｄer it as ｉｎ pｌａnning、 Thｅ　tｏol is　fｅd at eaｃh reciｐrｏcatｉon、 Cｏntoured　sｕｒｆaces can　ｂe produced ｂy ｕsing shａpｅd toｏls、　
Multｉｐlｅ—eｄgeｄ　tools cａn ａｌso be　usｅd、 Drｉｌlｉng　usｅs　a twin-eｄged fluｔeｄ　tｏｏl fｏr　hoｌes ｗith depths　ｕp to　5 to １0 timｅs ｔhe dｒｉll diameter、 Wｈethｅr ｔhe
dｒｉll turnｓ or　the　work ｐiecｅ rotateｓ, reｌatiｖe motiｏｎ betｗeen ｔｈe　cｕtting ｅｄge aｎd ｔhｅ ｗork pｉece is　tｈｅ iｍporｔａｎt facｔｏr、 Iｎ　ｍiｌlｉng operations a rｏtaｒy　cutter ｗiｔｈ　ａ　ｎｕmber of cuttinｇ　eｄges eｎｇagｅs ｔｈe wｏrk pｉｅｃｅ、 Whiｃｈ　movｅｓ slowｌy with rｅｓpｅct ｔo ｔhe cutteｒ、 Plane ｏr cｏｎtoｕred ｓurfａcｅs may be ｐｒoｄucｅd， dｅpendｉｎg　on　the geoｍetry ｏf the cｕtter aｎｄ the type of ｆｅｅd、　Horizontal ｏr vertｉcal axｅs of ｒotatiｏn　ｍay be used， and　the　feed of the woｒk ｐｉｅce mａy　be in any of the ｔhree coｏrｄｉnａtｅ direcｔionｓ、　
Ｂａsic Maｃhiｎe Toｏls　
Mａｃｈine tools　ａrｅ usｅd to　prｏdｕce a part ｏf ａ ｓpecified geomｅtrｉｃal　sｈape and ｐreciｓe Ｉ ｓizｅ ｂy removｉnｇ mｅtal from　a ductiｌe mａtｅrｉal in ｔhe ｆoｒm of ｃhipｓ、 Ｔｈe latteｒ are ａ wａstｅ pｒｏｄuct　and vａry from lｏng continuous ribｂonｓ ｏf a duｃtile matｅriａl　such aｓ steel, which arｅ ｕndeｓｉrａble from　ａ　dispｏsal ｐoｉnt of viｅw， tｏ easily handled weｌｌ—brｏｋen cｈｉps rｅsuｌting frｏm cast iron、 Ｍachｉne ｔｏｏlｓ peｒform fｉｖｅ　baｓic　metal—remoｖal procｅsses: I　ｔuｒｎiｎg， plａnning， drillｉｎｇ， millｉng， and griｎding、 Ａll otｈer　metal—ｒemｏvａl ｐｒocesｓｅs are ｍodificａtions of　ｔhese five　ｂaｓic ｐｒoｃesｓes、 For　examplｅ, boｒing ｉｓ ｉnteｒｎａl ｔurnｉng; reamiｎｇ， tappｉng，　aｎd　ｃountｅr ｂoriｎg mｏｄify ｄrilled holes aｎd aｒe relatｅd to dｒiｌｌinｇ； bobbiｎｇ and gear cutting　are funｄamｅntalｌy ｍilling　oｐeraｔｉonｓ;　ｈack sawing anｄ brｏachｉng are a form ｏf　ｐlannｉnｇ and honing； ｌapping, supeｒ fｉniｓhｉnｇ、　Pｏlishinｇ and buffinｇ are vａriaｎts　of grｉｎding or　abraｓiｖｅ ｒｅmovａl　ｏperations、 Tｈerefore,　theｒe ａre　ｏnly fouｒ types　oｆ bａｓic maｃhine tｏols， ｗｈicｈ use cutting toｏls of speｃific controllabｌe　ｇeomeｔry： 1、 lａtｈeｓ, 2、 planｅrs， 3、 dｒillｉng　macｈｉｎｅs， ａnｄ 4、 milｌｉng machines、 The　grinding ｐroｃesｓ foｒｍｓ ｃhｉps，　but ｔhe gｅometry ｏｆ the ａbrａsive gｒａｉn is unconｔｒoｌlａble、
The　amｏunｔ ａnd ｒate of maｔeｒial removed　by　tｈe　ｖaｒiｏus　ｍａchining　ｐrｏcesses　ｍay be　I ｌａrge, as iｎ hｅavｙ ｔurnｉng oｐeraｔions，　or extreｍelｙ smａll, aｓ in laｐping or　sｕpｅr finisｈiｎｇ oｐeratioｎｓ　ｗhｅrｅ ｏｎly the ｈigh spots　of a　sｕrfａcｅ　aｒe removed、
Ａ machｉne　toｏl　ｐerfoｒｍs　tｈｒee majｏr fｕnctionｓ： 1、 ｉt riｇiｄly ｓuppｏrtｓ the ｗork ｐiece ｏr ｉｔｓ ｈoldｅr　and ｔhe cuｔtiｎｇ tｏol； 2、 it　prｏvidｅs ｒｅlａｔive motｉon ｂetｗeen ｔhe worｋ piecｅ ａnd ｔhe cuttiｎg tool;　3、　iｔ ｐrｏvideｓ a raｎgｅ of feeds aｎd speeds ｕsuａｌly ｒanｇing ｆrom　4　tｏ　32 choｉceｓ　ｉn each case、
Ｓpｅｅd　ａnd　Ｆｅedｓ in　Maｃｈiniｎg　
Speeds fｅeds， aｎd ｄepｔｈ ｏf cut ａre ｔｈe thrｅｅ ｍaｊｏｒ variaｂles　ｆor　ｅconoｍical machining、 Ｏｔher ｖariables aｒe　the　ｗorｋ aｎd tｏｏl　ｍaterials， coolａｎt anｄ ｇeomeｔry　ｏｆ　tｈｅ ｃutting ｔool、 Ｔhe rate　of ｍeｔal ｒemovａl aｎd　poweｒ requｉred for macｈininｇ depeｎd ｕpon　tｈｅse vａｒiabｌeｓ、　
The ｄｅpth of cuｔ, fｅｅｄ, ａnd cutｔｉｎg　speed aｒｅ　maｃhiｎe sｅtｔings thaｔ muｓｔ be　established iｎ aｎy metal-ｃuttinｇ　oｐerａtioｎ、 They aｌl　affeｃt thｅ forces，　thｅ ｐｏwｅr, and the rａte oｆ meｔａl ｒeｍovａl、　Ｔhｅy caｎ be ｄefineｄ bｙ　ｐａｒｉｎg　theｍ ｔｏ the needｌe and reｃord　ｏf a ｐhｏnograｐh、 Tｈe cｕｔtinｇ　speｅd （V）　is　reｐreｓented ｂy tｈe　vｅｌocｉty of-　ｔhe ｒecoｒｄ sｕrfａce relative to ｔｈe nｅedle in ｔhe ｔone ａｒm at　aｎｙ ｉnｓtant、 Fｅed is ｒepｒeｓented　by tｈe　advancｅ of the neeｄlｅ radiallｙ inｗard　ｐｅr revolutｉon， ｏr ｉs　the diｆfereｎcｅ in poｓition beｔweｅn　two adｊａcenｔ grｏovｅs、 Tｈe deｐｔｈ of cut ｉs tｈe　penｅtrａtion ｏf ｔhｅ　needle ｉntｏ ｔｈe rｅcord or the depｔh　ｏｆ tｈｅ grooves、
Ｔｕrning on　Lathe Cｅnters
The　basｉc　oｐｅratｉons peｒformeｄ　on an enｇｉne ｌａthｅ arｅ illusｔｒated、 Ｔhｏse opｅｒａｔiｏｎｓ perfｏrmed　on external　ｓurfaｃes wｉth a sｉｎglｅ poｉnt　ｃutting　tool arｅ　called tｕrnｉng、　Eｘｃeｐt　ｆor drilling,　reaｍing， and　ｌaｐpinｇ, ｔhe opeｒatｉoｎs　on internal ｓurfaｃes　aｒe alsｏ ｐｅｒfｏrｍed by a ｓinｇle point cuttｉｎg ｔｏol、
All mａchｉｎiｎg oｐｅratｉons， ｉｎｃlｕｄinｇ ｔｕrｎing ａnｄ ｂoriｎg, ｃan ｂｅ　ｃlassｉfied　ａs ｒoughｉｎg，　finｉshｉng， ｏr　sｅmｉ－fｉnishｉnｇ、 The objecｔive of　a roｕghinｇ oｐerａｔion is to remove ｔhe　bulk ｏｆ ｔhe maｔerial　ａs　ｒapidly　and as eｆｆiciently as possｉｂlｅ, while　leａｖiｎｇ ａ sｍalｌ　amｏunt of mａｔerial on thｅ work—piｅcｅ fｏr the ｆinishinｇ ｏperatｉon、 Finishiｎg operationｓ aｒe peｒforｍｅｄ　to obtain ｔhe final　sizｅ，　shape, ａnd ｓurｆａce　ｆinish　on the ｗｏrk　piecｅ、 Sｏmｅｔimes a semi－fiｎｉshing oｐeｒatiｏn　wiｌl　pｒecｅde　tｈe ｆiｎiｓhｉｎg opeｒaｔion　ｔo ｌeaｖｅ ａ　sｍall　pｒedeterｍineｄ ａｎd　uniform　aｍｏｕnt oｆ ｓtock on ｔhｅ　woｒk—ｐiｅce　to bｅ remoｖed by the fiｎｉshing　operaｔion、
Generally， ｌｏnｇer wｏrk pieces　arｅ ｔurｎed　ｗhile suｐported on onｅ ｏｒ two ｌaｔhe ceｎｔers、 Cone　shaｐed　holeｓ, ｃalled centｅr holes， whicｈ fit tｈe lathe centers are driｌled　in the　ends of　the ｗoｒk pｉece-ｕsuallｙ aｌong the aｘｉs oｆ the ｃylｉｎｄricａl ｐaｒｔ、 Tｈe end of thｅ wｏrk pieｃｅ adjaceｎt ｔo ｔhe　taｉl stoｃk　is　alｗays suｐported ｂy ａ taｉl stoｃk ceｎｔeｒ， ｗhiｌe　tｈe　end near the ｈeａd stoｃk mａy bｅ sｕｐporteｄ　by a　heａd stｏcｋ centeｒ or　held ｉn a　chｕck、　The ｈead stoｃｋ enｄ ｏf tｈe　work ｐiｅce may ｂe ｈeｌｄ iｎ a　fouｒ—jaw　ｃhｕck， oｒ in a　ｔype　ｃｈuck、 This　ｍethod hoｌds thｅ　ｗｏｒk　ｐiece firmｌy ａｎd ｔrａnｓｆers　the power tｏ the　work ｐｉeｃｅ ｓmoothｌy;　tｈｅ　adｄitionaｌ support　tｏ the ｗoｒk piece prｏｖiｄed by tｈe ｃhuck　ｌｅssens the tｅndency foｒ ｃhaｔtｅｒ　to ｏcｃuｒ　when cutｔing、　Precisｅ results　can　be ｏbtained wiｔh this ｍethod ｉf　ｃａre ｉｓ　ｔaｋeｎ to hold tｈe　work ｐiece　accｕｒatｅly　ｉn tｈe chｕcｋ、　
Veｒy　pｒｅｃise rｅsulｔｓ can be　obtained　ｂy supporｔiｎｇ the work piece betｗeeｎ　ｔwｏ ｃenｔｅrｓ、 A ｌａｔｈe dｏｇ ｉｓ clamｐｅd　ｔo　ｔhe wｏrk ｐieｃe； ｔoｇeｔｈer tｈey ａre dｒiｖeｎ ｂy　a dｒiver ｐlate　ｍounｔｅd on tｈe spｉｎdle nose、 Oｎe end oｆ ｔhe Work　pｉｅce　is meｃａiｎed；then the　worｋ ｐiece　ｃan be tuｒneｄ ａrｏｕnd iｎ thｅ laｔhe to macｈiｎe ｔｈe othｅr end、 Thｅ　center hｏｌes in thｅ work piｅce sｅrve ａs preciｓe　lｏcatiｎg surfaｃeｓ ａs wｅll　as　bearｉｎg ｓurfａces　to carry　tｈe weigｈt of　thｅ　wｏrk pｉece　 aｎd to reｓist tｈe cutting fｏｒｃｅs、　Ａftｅr tｈｅ worｋ piｅce has beeｎ reｍovｅd from the　latｈe foｒ any ｒeason, the center hｏleｓ will accuｒａtelｙ　alｉgｎ　the work piｅce　ｂack ｉｎ thｅ laｔhe　or iｎ anoｔhｅr ｌａthe， or in ａ cylｉndrｉcal　grinｄｉnｇ ｍacｈｉne、 Tｈｅ worｋ piｅｃe mｕst never be ｈelｄ at ｔｈｅ head　stｏck end by ｂoｔｈ ａ ｃｈuck　anｄ a lathe　center、 Wｈile at ｆirst thouｇht tｈｉs　seeｍs　lｉke　ａ　qｕｉｃk methｏd　ｏf ａlｉgning ｔhｅ ｗｏrk piece in the　cｈuｃk, ｔｈiｓ mｕst ｎoｔ ｂｅ doｎｅ　becａusｅ it iｓ　noｔ ｐossiblｅ ｔo　prｅss evenly ｗiｔｈ ｔhｅ jaｗs aｇaiｎsｔ the work piece　wｈilｅ it　is ａlso　sｕpporｔｅd by the centｅr、　Tｈｅ　ａlｉgnment providｅｄ ｂy　ｔhe　centｅr will not bｅ ｍaiｎｔained ａnd tｈｅ ｐrｅsｓure ｏf thｅ jaｗs may　daｍagｅ thｅ　cenｔｅr hole， tｈe lathe cｅnter, anｄ perhaｐｓ eveｎ　tｈｅ lａthe spinｄle、 pensａting or　floａｔing　ｊaw ｃｈuckｓ ｕｓed ａlmｏst excｌｕsｉvely on　high　proｄｕctioｎ　work pｒovidｅ aｎ excｅption to ｔhｅ ｓｔatemeｎtｓ made abｏve、 Ｔhｅse ｃhｕcks aｒe　reaｌly work　drivers ａnd cａｎnot be used for thｅ ｓame puｒｐose　ａs ordinary thｒee or ｆｏur-jaw chｕcks、　
While　ｖery ｌarge diａmｅｔｅr work pｉｅces　aｒｅ ｓomｅｔimes mounted　on two cenｔeｒｓ， they　arｅ pｒｅferａbｌy ｈｅｌd ａt tｈe hｅadstock eｎｄ　bｙ ｆaｃepｌaｔe jawｓ ｔo obｔａin the　smｏoth power transmission； morｅover， larｇe laｔhｅ ｄｏｇs that are adｅquａtｅ to tｒansｍit　tｈe ｐoｗer not geｎeraｌly available, ａｌthoｕｇh thｅy can bｅ　mａde ａs a spｅcial、 Faceplatｅ jaws　ａｒe liｋe ｃｈｕck jａws ｅxcｅpt　tｈat tｈey are　mounteｄ　oｎ a faceplaｔe， ｗhicｈ has lｅss　ｏｖｅｒhａnｇ fｒoｍ the sｐｉndｌe　bearings　thaｎ a larｇｅ　chuck ｗouｌd haｖe、
Iｎtｒoｄｕｃtion of Maｃhiｎing
Machiniｎg　aｓ a ｓhape－prｏｄuｃiｎg ｍethod　is tｈe most univeｒsａllｙ　usｅd and tｈe　mosｔ ｉmｐortant oｆ all maｎufaｃturｉng pｒｏｃｅsses、 Maｃhinｉng iｓ a shaｐe-ｐｒoｄuciｎg ｐrｏcess in whｉcｈ a power-ｄriven　dｅvｉcｅ cａusｅs material　tｏ　ｂe　reｍoｖｅd　in ｃhip　fｏrm、 Most　maｃhｉning ｉs done　witｈ　ｅquipment thａt suｐporｔs　both ｔｈe wｏrk ｐiｅce　anｄ ｃｕtting tｏol ａltｈｏuｇh in ｓome ｃａses　portablｅ ｅｑuipment is used with　unsｕｐpｏｒｔed wｏrk　piｅce、
Low ｓetup ｃost fｏr　smaｌl Quaｎｔiｔiｅs、 Ｍachining has two applicａtiｏns ｉn　ｍanufacturinｇ、 For　ｃａstinｇ, forｇｉng, and　pｒeｓs　workinｇ， eａｃh specifｉc　shape　to be prｏduceｄ， ｅveｎ ｏｎｅ ｐａrt, neａrly aｌwayｓ has a　high　toolｉng　cosｔ、　Tｈe shａpes　tｈａt may he pｒoduｃed　by ｗeldiｎg depｅnｄ to a ｌａｒｇe dｅgree oｎ thｅ ｓhapes oｆ rａw matｅriａl thaｔ arｅ　aｖａilablｅ、 By ｍaking uｓe of　generally　high　cｏst　equｉpmeｎt　ｂut wiｔhouｔ spｅciａl　tooling, it　iｓ ｐossiｂｌe, ｂy ｍachiniｎg;　to ｓtart with　nearｌｙ any　foｒm　oｆ ｒａｗ　materｉal， so tｏnｇ ａs　the eｘtｅrior　ｄimeｎｓiｏnｓ　are　gｒeaｔ eｎｏugh,　anｄ　ｐroducｅ any dｅsｉrｅd shape　from ａnｙ material、　Ｔｈerefore　、macｈiniｎｇ is usually tｈｅ pｒｅfｅrred mｅｔhod　fｏr　ｐroducｉng　ｏｎｅ ｏr a fｅw paｒts, eｖen　whｅn tｈe dｅｓign of the part wouｌd　logicalｌｙ　lｅaｄ tｏ casting，　fｏｒgiｎg oｒ press worｋｉng　ｉf a ｈｉgh quantity weｒｅ to be produced、
Close accuracieｓ， gooｄ　fiｎisｈes、 Ｔhe seｃonｄ aｐplication foｒ ｍachining iｓ baseｄ oｎ　the hｉgｈ　accuracieｓ anｄ ｓuｒfaｃe finｉｓhes possible、 Mａｎy oｆ the ｐaｒts ｍachined ｉｎ low ｑuanｔities　woulｄ be prodｕｃeｄ　with　lower but aｃｃeptabｌe tｏｌerances iｆ pｒoducｅd　iｎ ｈigh ｑuanｔitieｓ by　some other pｒocess、　Ｏn　ｔｈｅ otｈer ｈand， ｍanｙ　paｒts　are gｉven thｅiｒ　ｇenｅｒaｌ　ｓhapes　by some ｈigh quaｎｔｉtｙ　ｄeｆｏｒmａｔion prｏcｅss aｎｄ machinｅd only on ｓeｌeｃtｅｄ　suｒfaces where high accuｒaｃｉes are　nｅeded、 Internａl threads， for　exａｍple, ａre seldｏｍ　pｒoｄuced ｂｙ any　means otheｒ　tｈan　machiniｎg　ａnd sｍall holｅs in　press　wｏrkｅｄ　partｓ mａy　be ｍachｉnｅd foｌloｗiｎｇ ｔhｅ press worｋinｇ opeｒations、　
Ｐriｍary Cｕｔtinｇ Ｐaｒameｔers
The ｂaｓic ｔool-wｏrk ｒelaｔionｓhiｐ　ｉn　cuｔting　is adequatｅlｙ deｓcribed　ｂy meanｓ　of foｕr factors: tool geoｍeｔry, cｕttｉnｇ ｓpeｅｄ，　feed，　ａnd deptｈ　oｆ ｃuｔ、
Ｔｈｅ cｕtting toｏｌ muｓt ｂｅ mａde　of　an appropriate mateｒiaｌ； ｉｔ　mｕsｔ ｂe stroｎg，　toｕgh,　ｈaｒｄ， and wear resisｔａnt、 The tooｌ　s geometry characterized by plａｎes　aｎd anｇleｓ， ｍuｓｔ be correcｔ　for each cuｔtｉnｇ oｐeｒatiｏn、 Cutｔｉｎg speed iｓ ｔhｅ ｒａtｅ at wｈicｈ　tｈe wｏrk surfａce ｐasses　by ｔhe　ｃutting eｄgｅ、 Ｉt mａy be exｐressｅd iｎ feet　per mｉnｕｔe、
Foｒ ｅffｉciｅｎt ｍａchｉniｎg　tｈe　cuttｉｎg speeｄ must be ｏf a　magnｉtude apprｏｐｒｉaｔe　tｏ　the partｉｃｕｌaｒ ｗｏｒｋ—ｔooｌ ｂｉnａtion、 In general,　the　ｈaｒdeｒ the ｗorｋ ｍaterial， tｈe ｓlowｅr the　ｓpeed、
Feｅｄ　iｓ　ｔhe　ｒate at whｉch tｈe cutting tooｌ advａnｃｅs into　ｔhｅ work　ｐiece、 "Wｈere　tｈｅ　work piecｅ oｒ ｔhe ｔool rotatｅs， feed iｓ　measured　iｎ　inｃhes ｐeｒ reｖolutiｏn、 Ｗhｅｎ　the　tool ｏｒ thｅ　worｋ rｅciprｏｃates，　feed iｓ ｍeasurｅd ｉn　ｉnｃｈes peｒ　sｔrokｅ,　Geｎeｒaｌlｙ, fｅed ｖaries　inｖerseｌy　ｗｉｔｈ　cuttinｇ spｅed ｆor otｈeｒwｉse simiｌaｒ condｉtionｓ、
Ｔhe ｄeｐtｈ of cut, measuｒed incｈes　is tｈe distance the　tooｌ ｉs ｓet iｎtｏ ｔhe work、　It ｉs tｈe width　ｏf tｈｅ　chip in turning or ｔhｅ thickness of ｔhｅ chip ｉn a　rectilinｅａｒ cｕｔ、 In roughｉｎg ｏperａtions， the　depth of cｕｔ cａｎ be larger than for　finishｉng opｅratiｏns、　
The Effecｔ oｆ Changeｓ iｎ Ｃuｔting Parameters on Cｕtting Tempｅratｕrｅs
Ｉｎ metal cutｔiｎg operａtiｏns heat iｓ geneｒaｔed　iｎ the ｐriｍarｙ　aｎd secondarｙ deｆorｍaｔioｎ zｏｎｅs ａnd tｈｅｓe results ｉn a pleｘ ｔemｐerａtｕre dｉsｔrｉbution ｔhｒｏughoｕｔ　the tool，　ｗoｒk　ｐiece　and cｈｉp、 A typｉcal sｅt　of ｉsothermｓ is shown in　fiｇure where it　ｃan be seen ｔhａｔ， as coulｄ　bｅ eｘｐected， there ｉs a very　ｌarge tｅｍｐｅrａｔure gｒaｄient　thｒoughoｕｔ thｅ　wｉdth　ｏｆ the ｃｈiｐ　as the wｏrk piecｅ mａterial is ｓhearｅd in pｒiｍａry defoｒmａtioｎ aｎd therｅ is a　fuｒther ｌａｒｇｅ ｔemperature in the ｃhip aｄｊaｃenｔ ｔｏ　the ｆace　as tｈｅ ｃhｉp is ｓhｅａｒeｄ　in　secoｎdary dｅｆｏｒｍａｔiｏn、 Ｔｈiｓ ｌeaｄs to a mａxｉmuｍ　ｃuｔtｉng ｔempeｒature　a shorｔ　distance　up　the face from the cｕttinｇ eｄｇe anｄ a　smalｌ distance ｉnto　thｅ chip、
Siｎce virtualｌy all　ｔhe work done　in ｍetal cｕtｔing　iｓ converｔed inｔｏ　hｅat,　it cｏuｌd be expeｃｔｅｄ that　faｃｔors　which　ｉnｃｒease the power　consumeｄ ｐer uｎｉt vｏｌuｍe of　ｍeｔal ｒeｍoveｄ ｗill　iｎｃreaｓe the　cuｔtｉng　ｔemｐｅrature、 Thｕs　an iｎcrease in ｔhe　rａke　angle，　alｌ othｅr paｒameｔers remainｉng coｎstanｔ， will rｅdｕce tｈe pｏwｅr ｐer unit vｏlumｅ oｆ metal　remｏved and thｅ cutting temperaｔuｒes wｉｌl reｄuｃe、 Ｗhen consｉｄｅrｉng incｒeａｓｅ　in unreformed cｈｉp thｉcknesｓ and cuｔｔing　speed tｈｅ siｔuatiｏn ｉs　moｒｅ pleｘ、 Aｎ increasｅ iｎ　undefoｒmｅｄ ｃhip thickｎess　tends to be　ａ scale　efｆｅcｔ where the aｍounts　of heaｔ wｈiｃh　paｓs tｏ　ｔhe ｗorｋ　piece，　tｈｅ tｏｏl aｎd　chip reｍain in　fｉxed prｏpoｒtiｏns and tｈe　ｃｈaｎges in ｃuttinｇ　temperaturｅ teｎd to ｂe　ｓmall、 Increaｓe　in　cutｔｉnｇ　ｓpeed; however， ｒedｕce　ｔhｅ amｏunt　of ｈｅat which ｐassｅｓ　ｉnto the wｏｒk　piece　ａnd　this increase the tｅｍperaturｅ rise of ｔhe chip ｍ priｍａｒy deformation、 Fｕrｔher, the ｓecｏnｄarｙ ｄeｆormａｔion　zonｅ tends to be　ｓmａller and tｈｉｓ has the eｆfect　ｏf iｎcｒｅasing thｅ　tｅmpｅratures　ｉn　this　ｚoｎe、 Ｏther　ｃhanges　in cuttｉｎg ｐarameters havｅ viｒtuaｌｌy　ｎo eｆfect on　the pｏwｅr cｏnsｕmｅd ｐer　unｉt　volｕme　of　metal reｍoveｄ and conseｑueｎｔly ｈave ｖirtｕａｌly nｏ eｆｆect on　tｈe cｕtting　ｔempeｒatures、 Since ｉｔ has ｂeen sｈown that even smａｌl ｃｈangeｓ ｉｎ cｕtting ｔempｅｒaｔuｒｅ ｈavｅ a ｓiｇniｆicanｔ　effecｔ on tｏｏl wear raｔe　it is aｐｐropｒiate ｔｏ　iｎｄicaｔe　how ｃｕｔｔing teｍperatures cａｎ be　ａｓsessｅd froｍ　cuttiｎg data、
Ｔhe ｍost direct　aｎd accurate mｅthｏｄ ｆor　ｍeasurｉｎｇ　ｔempeｒａｔuｒｅs ｉn high —speed—steel cutting toｏls is ｔhaｔ ｏｆ Wrighｔ　＆、 Trenｔ ｗhｉcｈ　also yｉｅｌds detailed　ｉnforｍaｔiｏn on temｐerａtｕｒｅ ｄistｒibutiｏns in hｉgh-sｐeｅd－ｓｔeｅl ｃuｔtｉｎg toｏｌｓ、 Ｔhe ｔecｈnique is bａｓed on the