英语词汇学复习及题型变化.doc

Introduction 部分：

Lexicology 这门课算哪一种学科的分支:
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics.  
Lexicology和那些重要的学科建立了联系: 
1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography
研究lexicology 的两大方法:
1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学
2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学
e.g. wife
纵观历时语言学的方法论，woman 词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？
Woman 的词义的变化算Narrowing or specialization

第一章部分：

What is word ? 
词具有哪些特点？
词的特点也就是对词的名词解释。 
1) A word is a minimal free form of a language; 
2) A sound unity or a given sound ; 
3) a unit of meaning;
4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.
什么叫borrowed words?  
Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms. 
(2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary 
(3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed.

什么叫Denizens?
 Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the English language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling, such as port from portus (L).
  ‘Denizens’的例子都要记：Port from portus (L), cup from cuppa (L), shift from skipta (ON), shirt from skyrta (ON), change from changier (F), pork from porc (F).

什么叫Translation-loans ?
 Translation-loans are words and expressions formed form the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language, such as ‘ long time no see from haojiumeijian (Ch)

什么叫Semantic-loans ?
 words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form ,But their meaning are borrowed , in other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language ,such as the word dream ,which originally meant ’joy’ and ‘music ’, and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse.

第三章复习:
 The smallest unit in the English language refers to (morphemes)
 The minimal free form in the English language refers to (word)
 In the plural form changing, some of the words will take internal vowel change , this internal vowel change is called (allomorphs)
 Deer 复数没有变,还是deer, sheep 复数没有变,还是sheep, 因此,这种变化被称作(zero derivation)

名词解释:
 Morphemes : The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as  morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is ’the smallest functioning unit in composition of words Allomorphs: The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs,
e.g.the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches. It can be realized by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in deer-deer, fish-fish

简答题： what are the types of morphemes ? ( 答简答题时,名词解释)
 答案：Free morphemes and bound morphemes
 Free morphemes :
1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to be free.
 2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.
 3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a single free root words ,as each of them consists of a single free root
4) free morphemes are free roots. 
bound morphemes:
1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound..
 2) They are bound to other morphemes to form words.
 3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix
 affix 分为两类: inflectional and derivational affixes.
 Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.
 Derivational affixes: 1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create now words
第四章:
 问题：在英语中,主要的构词法分为哪几种?
 答案：有七种: 
1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening5) clipping 6) acronymy 7) blending
 有三种最常用: affixation , compounding and conversion

问题：由专有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种?
 答案：Extension
 问题：由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式?
 答案：Narrowing
 问题：Affixation 又被称为什么? 它分为哪两类？
 答案：Affixation is also known as derivation
 Affixation falls into two subclasses : prefixation and suffixation
 要点: 有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别:
 a-, non, ir : negative prefixes
 de- , dis- ( 既属于negative , 也属于reversative prefixes )
 mal-, pseudo-, mis- : pejorative prefixes
 super , sur-, extra ： prefixes of degree or size
 anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- : prefixes of orientation and attitude
 trans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes
 fore-, post- : prefixes of time and order
 bi-, uni-, semi- : number prefixes
 pan-, vice - : miscellaneous prefixes
 suffixation :
 1. Noun suffixes
1) Denominal nouns
 2) Deverbal nouns
 3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness,
 4) Noun and adjective suffixes

注意Compounding, acoronymy , blending , conversion , clipping 的名词解释.

要点: 复合词分为哪三类: 1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open
 简答题: what are the characteristics of compounds ?
 What are the difference between compounds and free phrases ?

答案：
1) phonetic features
 2) Semantic features
 3) Grammatical features

最常见的三种词性 : 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb compounds

问题：在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性, 哪两种不具有多产性?
 在形容性复合词当中, 哪三类有多产性?
 动词性复合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的?

*名词解释:Conversion ( 重点，还没考过)
 Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.
 Functional shift = conversion

第五章：Word Meaning
The meanings of‘Meaning’ 指的是哪三个层次的内容?
意义中的含义的三个层次的划分:
What are the meanings of ‘Meaning’?
1) Reference (有reference 的词必然具有sense, 也必然具有Concept )
2) Concept( 能够形成Concept 的词必然有reference )
3) Sense (有sense 的词未必具有concept , 也未必具有reference)
(Conjunction , prepositions, adverbs, 它们都是具有sense 的词,但是未必具有reference , 也未必具有concept, 例如：if, but, probably : 它们有sense, 但没有concept )

What is the relationship between the reference and the thing outside the language?（等同于：What is relationship between sound and form ）
答: Arbitrary and conventional
名词解释: reference ：it is the relationship between langauge and the world!
名词Concept : 1. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical .
They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.
2. Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind .
3. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on.
4. a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.

重点: sense 的名词解释：
Sense : 1. ‘ sense’ denotes the relationships inside the language. ‘ The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’
2. Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction.
*3. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)
重点：What are the type of motivation？
1) Onomatopoeic motivation
2) Morphological Motivation
3) Semantic Motivation
4) Etymological Motivation
填空:
1.some of the words when edited with prefixes and suffixes, it will become another new word, either new in meaning or new in sense, this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )
2. Compounds are totally different in the meaning before it was carried out with different elements, so the meaning of a compound can not be deduced from component constituted this compound ,this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )

第六章: Sense Relations and Semantic Field
polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）
Two Approaches to Polysemy:
1) Diachronic approach
2) Sychronic approach
Two Processes of Development
1) radiation
(1) radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.
(2) the meaning are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning.
e.g. face, neck
2) concatenation
(1) meaning ‘ linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in may cases ,there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning .
(2) In plain terms the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time, and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally lost.
e.g. treacle
注意： 这两种模式的名词解释照样要记（这两种模式只在填空，选择，出过题，还没有以名词解释形式考过）

问题：In the linguistic study, what are the sense relations and what are the types of sense relations ?
答案: A word which is related to the other words is related to them in sense, so it is called sense semantic relations.
types of sense relations : polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）

问题：Fruit 与 apples bananas, pineapples, lychees 是什么语义关系？
答案：Hyponymy?

问题：Fruit 这一类里包含apples, bananas, pineapples, grapes 它们形成了一种什么样的理论？
答案： Semantic field

问题：有的时候在英语中存在着一种语言不共容的现象，那就是反义词的不共容的现象， 那么这种不能够相互溶合，这样的词在反义词当中被称作什么词。
比如说：dead , alive , 它们之间的反义关系是什么样的一种关系？
答案：Contradictory terms
它们之间形成的语义关系被称作antonymy
问题：Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？
答案：Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable, They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them.

第七章: Changes in Word Meaning
两个大的部分:
1. Types of Semantic changes (五种)
(1)extension
extension 又被称作generalization
e.g ’manuscript’ original meaning ’ handwritting---now ’any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer
"barn" original meaning ’ a place for stroing only barely’---now ’storeroom’
(2)narrowing
narrowing 又被称作specialization
e.g. "deer" animal---now just ’deer’
"corn" grain---now ’maize’only
’garage’ any safe place---’ a place for storing cars’
(3) degradation
degradation 又被称作pejoration
e.g. "boor" peasant---now a rude, ill-mannered person
"churl"peasant or free man---uncultivated or mean person
"hussy" housewife---a woman of low moral
"villain" a person who worked in a villa---evil person or scoundrel
(4) elevation
elevation 又被称作 ameliration
e.g. "nice" ignorance---foolish---now elevated to ’delight, pleasant’
"marshal" keeper of horses---now means ’high-ranking army officer’
"constable" keeper of horses---now means ’policeman’
(5) transfer
e.g. paper ( p140)
the lip of a wound ( associated transfer)
purse for ’money’ (associated transfer )
clear-sounding ( transfer of sensations )
2.Causes of Changes :
1)extra linguistic factors
(1) historical reason
a word is retained for a name thogh the meaning has changed because the referent has changed.
e.g. " pen" feather in the past ---pen, ball-pens, fountains pens
increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors.
(2) class reason
elevation and degradation
(3) Psychological reason
The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words
Religious influence is another kind of psychological need.
e.g. "copperhead" on p.143
2)linguistic factors
The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system.
Especially when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole.
The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.
The competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division.
语义扩大的三个特例:1)polysemic words of modern English

Chapter 8 meaning and Context
要记两个重要部分:

1 Context 如何进行分类
两种: 1) Linguistic context
In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word
appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.
2) Extra-linguistic context
or non-linguistic context
IN a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.
Context 这两个分类也就是它的名词解释
1)Linguistic context
Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context
Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The
meaning of the word is offten affected and defined by the neighbouring words.
Grammatical context In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context.
重点:简答题: What is linguistic context?(这道简答题没考过, 但是整个context 考过)
重点:The role of Context 语境的作用?
三个作用: 1) Elimination of Ambiguity
Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy
2) Indication of Referents
Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing.
3) Provision of Clues for Inferring Wordmeaning
在3) 中又包括八种线索:
(1) Definition
(2) Explanation
(3) Example
(4) Synonymy
(5) Antonymy
(6) Hyponymy
(7) Relevant details
(8) Word structure

第九章: English Idioms
这一章关键是要记习语，这些习语都要记。
名词解释: Idioms (重点)
(1)Idioms consist of set phrases and short
sentences which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas.
2)Strickly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of indiviudal elements.
(3)In forms idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrases, slang expressions.
9.1 Character5istics of Idioms
9.1.1 semantic unity (重点)
1) idioms each consist of more than one word.
2) in the idiom words have lost their individual identity.
3) quite often the idiom functions as one word.
e.g. " till the cows come home" , means ’ forever as an adverb.
9.1.2 Structural stability ( 重点)
1) the structure of an idiom is to a large exten unchangeable. first , the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced.
e.g. " in a brown study" ( deep in thought )
lip service" ( support only in words, not in fact )
" kick the bucket " ( die)
" bury the hatchet" ( come to friendly or peaceful terms和解)
2) Secondly, the word order cannot be inverted or changed.
e.g. twos and threes; tit for tat; the lion’s share
3) Thirdly, the constituents of an idioms cannot be deleted or added to , not even an article.
e.g. out of the question means ’ impossible’
in question ( being considered)
4) Finally , many idioms are grammatical unanalysable,
e.g. diamond cut diamond ( two parties are equally matched )
like cures like
(as) sure as eggs ( quite certainly )
stepped up ( improve or enhance)
in the raw ( naked )
turn over a new leaf ( begin a new life )
draw the curtain ( end or concel )
9.2 Classification of Idioms
The difficulty in using idioms lies first in the difficulty of grasping the elusive and figurative meaning, of determining the syntactic functions of idioms
e.g. heart and soul ( adverbial )
Idioms may be classified into five groups:
1) Idioms Nominal in Nature
2)