古代文学诗集.pptx

Principles of EvolutionHow Did Evolutionary Thought Evolve?Early biological thought did not include the concept of evolution.Exploration of new lands revealed a staggering diversity of life.Fossil discoveries showed that life had changed over Time.Some scientists devised non-evolutionary explanations for fossils.A few scientists speculated that life had evolved with time.Geology provided evidence that Earth is exceedingly old.Some pre-Darwin biologists proposed mechanisms for evolution.Darwin and Wallace proposed a mechanism of evolution.Darwin studied a group of closely related species of finches on the Galapagos Islands.Each species specializes in eating a different type of food and has a beak of characteristic size and shape,because natural selection has favored the individuals best suited to exploit each food source efficiently.Aside from the differences in their beaks,the finches are quite similar.Principles of Evolutionhttp:/ 衬塑复合管衬塑复合管 涂塑复合管涂塑复合管 钢塑复合管钢塑复合管 消防涂覆钢管消防涂覆钢管 http:/a.Large ground finch,beak suited to large seedsb.Small ground finch,beak suited to small seedsc.Warbler finch,beak suited to insectsd.Vegetarian tree finch,beak suited to leavesHow Does Natural Selection Work?Modern Genetics confirmed Darwins assumption of inheritance.Natural Selection modifies populations over time.Fossils provide evidence of evolutionary change over time.Comparative Anatomy gives evidence of Descent with Modification.Homologous structures provide evidence of Common Ancestry.Functionless structures are inherited from ancestors.Many organisms have vestigial structures that serve no apparent function.The(a)salamander,(b)whale,and(c)snake all inherited hindlimb bones from a common ancestor;the bones remain functional in the salamander but are vestigial in the whale and snake.How Do We Know That Evolution Has Occurred?Some anatomical similarities result from evolution in similar environments Embryological similarity suggests common ancestryModern biochemical and genetic analyses reveal relatedness among diverse organisms.Convergent evolution can produce outwardly similar structures that differ anatomically.The wings of(a)insects and(b)birds and the sleek,streamlined shapes of(c)seals and(d)penguins are examples of such analogous structures.The early embryonic stages of a(a)lemur,(b)pig,and(c)human show strikingly similar anatomical features.What Is the Evidence That Populations Evolve by Natural Selection?Controlled Breeding Modifies OrganismsEvolution by Natural Selection Occurs TodayWhen fewer predators are present,brighter coloration can evolve.Natural Selection can lead to pesticide resistance.Experiments can demonstrate Natural Selection.Selection acts on random variation to favor the traits that work best in particular environmentsDog diversity illustrates artificial selectionA comparison of(a)the ancestral dog(the gray wolf,Canis lupus)and(b)various breeds of modern dogs.Artificial selection by humans has caused a great divergence in size and shape of dogs in only a few thousand years.How Are Populations,Genes,and Evolution Related?Genes and the environment interact to determine traits.The gene pool is the sum of the genes in a population.Evolution is the change over time of allele frequencies within a population.The equilibrium population is a hypothetical population that does not evolve.What Causes Evolution?Mutations are the source of Genetic VariabilityMutations are rare,but importantMutations are not Goal-DirectedMutations occur spontaneouslyGene flow between populations changes Allele Frequencies.Allele frequencies may drift in small populations.Population size mattersA population bottleneck Is an example of Genetic DriftPopulation bottlenecks reduce variation The Effect of Population Size on Genetic DriftEach colored line represents one computer simulation of the change over time in the frequency of allele A in a(a)large or(b)small population in which two alleles,A and a,were initially present in equal proportions,and in which randomly chosen individuals reproduced.Population Bottlenecks Reduce Variation(a)A population bottleneck may drastically reduce genetic and phenotypic variation because the few organisms that survive may carry similar sets of alleles.Both(b)the northern elephant seal and(c)the cheetah passed through population bottlenecks in the recent past,resulting in an almost total loss of genetic diversity.What Causes Evolution?Isolated founding populations may produce bottlenecksMating within a population Is almost never randomAll genotypes are not equally beneficialAntibiotic resistance evolves by natural selectionPenicillin resistance illustrates key points about evolutionA Human Example of the Founder EffectAn Amish woman with her child,who suffers from a set of genetic defects known as Ellisvan Creveld syndrome(short arms and legs,extra fingers,and,in some cases,heart defects).The founder effect accounts for the prevalence of Ellisvan Creveld syndrome among the Amish residents of Lancaster County,Pennsylvania.A Compromise Between Opposing Pressures(a)A male giraffe with a long neck is at a definite advantage in combat to establish dominance.(b)But a giraffes long neck forces it to assume an extremely awkward and vulnerable position when drinking.Thus,drinking and malemale contests place opposing evolutionary pressures on neck length.How Does Natural Selection Work?Natural selection stems from unequal reproductionNatural selection acts on phenotypesSome phenotypes reproduce more successfully than others.An environment has non-living and living componentsCompetition acts as an agent of selectionBoth predator and prey act as agents of selectionSexual selection favors traits that help an organism mateSelection can influence populations in three waysDirectional selection shifts character traits in a specific directionStabilizing selection acts against individuals who deviate too far from the averageDisruptive selection adapts individuals within a population to different habitats.Three Ways that Selection Affects a Population Over TimeA graphical illustration of three ways natural and/or sexual selection,acting on a normal distribution of phenotypes,can affect a population over time.In all graphs,the beige areas represent individuals that are selected againstthat is,do not reproduce as successfully as do the individuals in the purple range.