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,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Lecture 9,The use of English,（,I,）,第1页,第1页,Review,What do we mean by“prototype”?Use an example to illustrate.,How do you understand the following book title?,Women,Fire and Dangerous Things,(George Lakoff 1987),第2页,第2页,Appreciate,老音乐好听，,旧钞票会升值，,老朋友最能信任，,谁说旧没有新好？,-,胖仔物语,How is this ballad semantically interesting?,第3页,第3页,Major contents,9.1 Pragmatic approach to language,9.2 Deictic expressions,9.3 Speech act theory,9.4 Presupposition,第4页,第4页,9.1 Pragmatic approach to language,Pragmatics is the study of,meaning in use,meaning in context,speaker meaning,contextual meaning,Pragmatics studies,communication,(utterance production and comprehension)from,a functional(i.e.social,cultural,cognitive)perspective.,第5页,第5页,Semantics vs pragmatics,Semanticism,:semantics includes pragmatics,Pragmaticism,:pragmatics includes semantics,Complementarism,:semantics studies,meaning in the abstract;pragmatics,studies meaning in the context/use.,第6页,第6页,Mean and Say,It wasnt what he said,but what he meant.,Then you should say what you mean,the March Hare went on.,I do,Alice hastily replied;at least at least I mean what I say thats the same thing,you know.,Not the same thing a bit,said the Hatter.“You might just as well say that I see what I eat is the same thing as I eat what I see!”,“You might just as well say,”added the March Hare,“that I like what I get is the same thing as I get what I like!”,“You might just as well say,”added the Dormouse “that I breathe when I sleep is the same thing as I sleep when I breathe!”,(Lewis Carroll:,Alices Adventures in Wonderland),第7页,第7页,Literal meaning,utterance meaning,speaker meaning,I met him yesterday.,Youre really friendly.,A:Do you like Harry and John?,B:I like Harry.,第8页,第8页,9.2 Deictic expressions,（,批示语,）,Deixis:(from Greek)anchoring,pointing (toward the context)phenomenon.,The linguistic means used in this function are known as deictics,indexicals(or indexical/deictic expressions).,Examples:pronouns,demonstratives,time and place adverbs,and some grammatical categories such as tense.,第9页,第9页,Characteristics in use,The egocentricity of deixis,Deictic expressions are anchored to specific,points,in the communicative event.The unmarked,points,called the deictic center,are typically assumed to be as follows(S.Levinson:,Pragmatics,):,I,love,this,game!,第10页,第10页,-,the central person is the speaker,-the central time is the time at which the speaker produces the utterance,-the central place is the speakers location at utterance time,-the discourse center is the point which the speaker is currently at in the production of his utterance,-the social center is the speakers social status and rank,to which the status or rank of addressees or referents is relative,第11页,第11页,Discuss,PP 147-148 No.2,3,第12页,第12页,Deictic vs.Non-deictic,Deictic:gestural/symbolic,You,you,but not you,are dismissed.(gestural),What did you say?(Symbolic),Non-deictic:anaphoric/non-anaphoric,Jack is a student.,He,comes from Britain.,You,can never tell what sex they are nowadays.,There,you go again./,There,we go.,I did,this,and,that,.,第13页,第13页,Classification of deixis,Person deixis,Place deixis,Time deixis,social deixis,discourse deixis,第14页,第14页,9.3 Speech act theory,Saying is acting.(John Austin,How to Things with Words,1962),Teacher:Class begins.,Boss:You are fired,!,第15页,第15页,“,Speech acts,”refer to actions performed via utterances.,Speech acts,are“the basic or minimal units of linguistic communication”.,“The unit of linguistic communication is not,as has generally been supposed,the symbol,word or sentence,but rather the production of the symbol or word or sentence in the performance of the,speech act,”,Searle,第16页,第16页,a.There is a book on the desk.,b.I promise Ill be there ten sharp tomorrow.,hereby-test:first person singular subject,simple present tense,indicative mood,active voice,performative verbs(with exceptions,though),Constatives(,表述句）,and performatives,（施为句）,第17页,第17页,Collapse of Performative Hypothesis,a.Not all performative utterances require a performative verb;,b.An utterance with a performative verb may not be the type of act suggested by the verb;,e.g.A kidnapper:,I advise you to give me all in your pocket.,第18页,第18页,Do the following count as promises?If not,why?,a.I promise Ill fail you in the exam.,b.I promise that next Friday will be his birthday.,c.I promise that I saw him yesterday.,d.I promise that youll help me out of trouble.,e.He promises that hell help me.,f.I promised that I would help him.,第19页,第19页,felicity conditions,（适切条件）,a.Essential condition,（基本条件）,b.Preparatory condition(,预备条件）,c.Propositional content condition,（命题内容条件）,d.Sincerity condition,（真诚条件）,第20页,第20页,Felicity conditions for a promise:,1)The speaker can do what is promised;(,基本）,2,）,The promised act has not taken place yet;(,预备）,3,）,The utterance is about a future act;The promised act is to the benefit of the hearer;The promised act will be fulfilled by the speaker;,（命题内容）,4)The speaker means what he says.,（真诚）,etc.,第21页,第21页,Practice,PP.149-150 No.5,第22页,第22页,Austins classification,-locutionary act:what is said,-illocutionary act:what is intended to do,-perlocutionary act:what is to be effected,Leech:,locutionary act,performing an act,of,saying sth,Illocutionary act,performing an act,in,saying sth,Perlocutionary act,performing an act,by,saying sth,第23页,第23页,Practice:,Analyze As remark in the following in terms of the three acts.,A:,The phone is ringing,.,B:(Stands up and picks up the receiver)Hello.,第24页,第24页,Searles classification of illocutionary acts,Representatives/assertives,（阐述类）,:,describe,inform,deny,state,claim,assert,remind,etc.,Directives,（指令类）,:,request,ask,urge,tell,demand,order,advise,command,beseech,etc.,Commissives,（承诺类）,:,commit,promise,threaten,pledge,consent,refuse,offer,guarantee,etc.,第25页,第25页,Expressives,（表示类）,:,apologize,boast,thank,deplore,welcome,congratulate,greet,etc.,Declarations,（宣布类）,:,declare,resign,appoint,nominate,bless,christen,name,etc.,第26页,第26页,Indirect speech acts,A direct performative act,:,I order you to leave the room.,P.150 No.6,第27页,第27页,How to perform speech acts?,Different cultures,different realizations,e.g.,Compliment-Compliment response,e.g.,A:Oh,what a beautiful handwriting!B:No,no,not at all,you are joking.,第28页,第28页,Presentation session,Complimenting and responding to compliments in English,第29页,第29页,9.4 Presupposition,Presupposition and entailment,Presupposition triggers:linguistics device that make inference possible.,PP 151-152 No.8,9,第30页,第30页,Assignments,P.155 No.3,P.156 No.6,7,第31页,第31页,Lecture 10,The use of English(II),第32页,第32页,Review,What are the three aspects of a speech act,according to John Searle?Use an example to illustrate.,第33页,第33页,Major contents,10.1 Cooperation in using English,10.2 Politeness in using English,10.3 Face considerations in using English,10.4 Developing pragmatic competence,第34页,第34页,10.1 Cooperation in using English,Cooperative Principle,Make your conversational contribution such as is required,at the stage at which it occurs,by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.,H.P.Grice,Logic and Conversation,1975,第35页,第35页,Maxims of the principle,Quality:Be truthful.,a.Do not say what you believe to be false.,b.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.,Quantity:Be informative.,a.Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purposes of the exchange),b.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.,第36页,第36页,Relation:Be relevant.,Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand.,Manner:Be perspicuous.,a.Avoid obscurity of expression.,b.Avoid ambiguity.,c.Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity),d.Be orderly.,第37页,第37页,Plausibility of the maxims,P.172 No.9,第38页,第38页,Flouting of the maxims,He is a machine.,A:Where were you last night?,B:I went out.,A:Do you like the sisters?,B:I like the younger sister.,第39页,第39页,A:What do you think of my new hairstyle?,B:Your dress is nice.,A:Lets get the kids something.,B:Okay,but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.,第40页,第40页,Implicature,It is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance.When any of the maxims is blatantly violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated,a particular conversational implicature arises.,第41页,第41页,Some properties of conversational implicature,a.It can be cancelled,either by an explicit declaration that the speaker is opting out or,implicitly,by the co-text and context.(cancellability,可取消性,),A:Do you want some coffee?,B:Coffee would keep me awake.(But any way,Id like some.,第42页,第42页,b.It can be inferred(calculability,可推导性,),P.170 No.3,第43页,第43页,How to calculate an implicature?,a.The conventional meaning of the words used,and the references of referring expressions;,b.the cooperative principle and its maxims;,c.the co-text and context;,d.background knowledge;,e.the supposition that all participants suppose that all relevant items falling under(1)-(4)are available to them all.,第44页,第44页,A professor writes a recommendation letter as follows:,“X has regularly and punctually attended all my classes.All his assignments were handed in on time and very neatly presented.I greatly enjoyed having X in my class.”,ASK,:What is his implied meaning?,第45页,第45页,1 Since I have good reason to believe that she has information about Xs writing skills,the speaker has deliberately failed to observe(flouted)the maxim“Be informative”,2 But I have no reason to believe that she has really opted out of the cooperative principle.So,she is only being apparently uninformative.,3 If I draw the inference that X hasnt got very good writing skills,then the speaker is being cooperative.She knows that I am capable of working this out.,4 Therefore,she has implied(or“implicated”to use Grices term)that the students writing skills are not very good.,第46页,第46页,c.It may be indeterminate:in many cases,the list of possible implicatures of an utterance is open.(indeterminacy,不拟定性,),P.170 No.4,d.Non-detachability given the same proposition,A:Are you coming to the concert tomorrow?,B1:There will be an exam soon.,B2:Wont there be an exam soon?,B3:There will be an exam,wont there?,第47页,第47页,10.2 Politeness in using English,Leechs Politeness Principle,Minimize,(other things being equal)the expression of impolite beliefs and,Maximize,(other things being equal)the expression of polite beliefs.,第48页,第48页,The 6 maxims of Leechs PP,approbation,tact,generosity,modesty,agreement,sympathy,第49页,第49页,Tact Maxim,Minimize cost to other,Maximize benefit to other,Generosity Maxim,Minimize benefit to self,Maximize cost to self,第50页,第50页,Please wait a,second,.,Give me,a hand,.,Could you sharpen these pencils,please.(less polite),Could these pencils be sharpened,please.(more polite),Could I have some more soup?(less polite),Is there some more soup?(more polite),第51页,第51页,I can offer you my car if you need it.,You can offer me your car because I need it.,Do have a bit more.,Just have a taste of the fish.,第52页,第52页,Approbation Maxim,Minimize dispraise of other,Maximize praise of other,Maxim of modesty,Minimize praise of self,Maximize dispraise of self,第53页,第53页,What a marvelous meal you cooked!,What an awful meal you cooked!,A:This is one of the best articles Ive ever read.,B:Yes,its brilliant,isnt it?,第54页,第54页,Agreement Maxim,Minimize disagreement between self and other,Maximize agreement between self and other,Sympathy Maxim,Minimize antipathy between self and other,Maximize sympathy between self and other,第55页,第55页,Im terribly sorry to hear about your cat.,Im delighted to hear about your cat.,第56页,第56页,Politeness scale:Directness,direct,Could you possibly answer the phone?,Would you mind answering the phone?,Can you answer the phone?,Will you answer the phone?,I want you to answer the phone.,Answer the phone.,indirect,第57页,第57页,Politeness scale:Cost-benefit,benefit,Have another sandwich.,Enjoy your holiday.,Look at that.,Sit down.,Hand me the newspaper.,Peel these potatoes.,Cost,第58页,第58页,10.3 Face considerations in using English,Face,the public self-image that every member wants to claim for himself,consisting in two related aspects:,According to Brown and Levinson(1978/1987):,negative face:the basic claim to territories,personal preserves,rights to non-distraction-i.e.to the freedom of action and freedom from imposition,第59页,第59页,positive face:the positive consistent self-image or personality(crucially including the desire that this self-image be appreciated and approved of)claimed by interactants.,第60页,第60页,Presentation session,Strategies for doing FTAs in English,第61页,第61页,Assignments,PP.172-173 No.10,PP.176-177 No.2,3,PP.178-180 No.11,第62页,第62页,Lecture 11,The Varieties of English(I),第63页,第63页,Review,What are some properties of conversational implicature?,What are some maxims of politeness?Use an example for each maxim.,第64页,第64页,Major contents,1,1.1 Interrelation between language and society,11.2 Regional dialects of English,11.3 Social dialects of English,11.4 Register theory,第65页,第65页,1,1.1 Interrelation between language and society,Chomsky (cognitive approach,ideal speaker)vs.Saussure (social semiotic approach),Any use of language is socially marked/stamped.Style is the man.,The story of the flowergirl in Pygmalion,As society changes,language will change.Language reflects society,as shown by the lexicon of snow,camel.,第66页,第66页,The social value of a dialect or variety reveals the social status of the speaker.A speaker with a large repertoire is likely to be more successful in his future career.For example,the ability to speak different dialects/mandarin Chinese is often advantageous in job hunting.,The speech of a speaker acting as a father/son/husband/teacher/friend is varied.,第67页,第67页,Approaches to the study of the interrelation,Macro-sociolinguistics,:a birds-eye view:how language functions in society and how language reflects the social differentiations.sociology of language,Micro-sociolinguistics,:a worms-eye view:how language functions in the communication between members of the society.sociolinguistics,第68页,第68页,11.2 Regional dialect,Language and dialect,Language,:writing system;may include several dialects;often politically defined,Dialect,:traditionally only variation with space,but now with the space,the temporal factor and social factors usu.spoken;often part of a language;not distinct enough from other dialects of the same language to be treated as an independent language;often marked by geographical or social barriers;restricted purposes,Chinese vs.Cantonese,第69页,第69页,dialect,A regionally or socially distinctive VARIETY of a language,identified by a particular set of WORDS and GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES.Spoken dialects are usually also associated with a distinctive pronunciation,or ACCENT.Any LANGUAGE with a reasonably large number of speakers will develop dialects,especially if there are geographical barriers separating groups of people
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