3morphology.pptx

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,#,Word Structure:morphology,The Structure of Words:Morphology,Fundamental concepts in how words are composed out of smaller parts,The nature of these parts,The nature of the rules that combine these parts into larger units,What it might mean to be a,word,Basic Units,Remember that in phonology the basic distinctive units of sound are,phonemes,In morphology,the basic unit is the,morpheme,Basic definition:,A morpheme is a minimal unit of sound and meaning,The smallest unit of language that carries meaning(maybe a word or not a word),A sound-meaning unit,A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function,The level of language at which sound and meaning combine,Some Examples,Many words can be divided into smaller parts,where the parts also occur in other words:,dogswalkingblackensplayer-hater,dog-swalk-ingblack-en-splay-er hat-er,Compare:,cat-,s,;runn-,ing,;dark-,en-s,;eat-,er,(note:in some cases there are spelling changes when we add morphemes;ignore this),The smaller parts occur consistently with many words:,-s,:forms the plural consistently,-ing,:forms a noun from a verb,-en,:forms a verb meaning become ADJ from an adjective ADJ,-er,:forms an,agentive nominal,from a verb,a person or thing who does that activity,Connections between,Sound,and,Meaning,Remember that a,phoneme,sometimes has more than one sound form,while being the same abstract unit:/p/with p and p,h,.,A related thing happens with morphemes as well.,In order to see this,we have to look at slightly more complex cases.,Morphemes and,Allomorphs,Sometimes it is said that a morpheme has more than one,allomorph,This happens when the same meaning unit like past for past tense or pl for plural has more than one sound form,Past:,one feature past,kick/kick-ed,leave/lef-t,hit/hit-,The last example shows a case in which the phonological form of the morpheme past is,zero,i.e.it is not pronounced,In the case of phonology,we said that the different,allophones,of a phoneme are part of the same phoneme,but are found in particular contexts.,The same is true of the different,allomorphs,of a morpheme.,Which allomorph of a morpheme is found depends on its context;in this case,what it is attached to:,Example:,consider pl for English plural.It normally has the pronunciation s(i.e./z/),but,moose/moose-,ox/ox-en,An Additional Point:,Regular,and,Irregular,In the examples above,the different allomorphs have a distinct status.One of them is,regular,.,This is the,default,form that appears in e.g.Wug-test environments.,For other allomorphs,speakers simply have to memorize the fact that the allomorph is what it is.,Example:,It cannot be predicted from other facts that the plural of,ox,is,ox-en.,Demonstration:,The regular plural is/z/;consider one,box,two,box-es,.Or a Wug-test scenario.,Default cases like the/z/plural are called,regular,.Allomorphs that have to be memorized are called,irregular.,Our working definition of,morpheme,was minimal unit of sound and meaning,A further division among morphemes involves whether,they can occur on their own or not:,No:-s in dog-s;-ed in kick-ed;cran-in cran-berry.,Yes:dog,kick,berry.,Some Definitions,Bound Morphemes:,Those that cannot appear on their own.,Free Morphemes:,Those that can appear on their own.,In a complex word:,The,root,or,stem,is the basic or core morpheme.,The things added to this are the,affixes.,Example:,in,dark-en,the root or stem is,dark,while the affix in this case a,suffix,is en.,Morphemes,lexical,free,(open,c,lasses),Morphemes,functional,(closed classes),bound,derivational,inflectional,Further points,In some cases,works will use,root,and,stem,in slightly different ways.,Affixes are divided into,prefixes,and,suffixes,depending on whether they occur before or after the thing they attach to.,For the most part,prefixes and suffixes are always bound,except for isolated instances.,Stem(root,base),:,the morpheme to which other morphemes are added,free,(e.g.,teach,er,dres,s,es,un,kind,),Stem,bound,(e.g.in,ept,un,kempt,re,peat,),Root,A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes(inflectional&derivational)are removed,e.g.“,desire”,in“,desirable”,“care”,in,“carefully,”,“,nation,”in“,internationalism”,“,believe,”in“,unbeliev(e)able,”,Stem,A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed,e.g.“undesiralbe”in undesirables,Base,A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.,Affix,:,Prefix,e.g.,un,happy,Infix,e.g.abso,goddam,lutely,Suffix,e.g.happi,ness,Content,and,Function,Words,Content Morphemes:,morphemes that have a referential function that is independent of grammatical structure;e.g.,dog,kick,etc.,Sometimes these are called,open-class,because speakers can add to this class at will,Function morphemes:,morphemes that are bits of syntactic structure e.g.prepositions,or morphemes that express grammatical notions like past for past tense.,Sometimes called,closed-class,because speakers cannot add to this class,Free Morpheme,Definition:,can occur by itself,not attached to other morphemes,Examples:,girl,teach,book,class,the,of,etc,.,Two kinds,A.,lexical morpheme,(open class),1.,feature:,has lexical meaning;new examples can be freely added,2.examples:,N,Verb,Adj,Adv(content words),B.functional morpheme(closed class),1.feature:,new examples are rarely added(but not impossible to add),2.examples:,Pro,Prep,Conj,Art.(function words),Bound Morpheme,I.,Definition:,must be attached to another morpheme,II.Derivational morpheme,may change syntactic class,to form new(,different,)words,examples:-able,-ex,un-,re-,-ness,etc.,III.Inflectional morpheme,Different forms of the,same,word(no new word added),Not change syntactic class(nor adding lexical meaning),To indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word,Only 8 kinds in English:-s,-s(plural nouns),-ing,-ed/-en,-est,-er,-s(S-V agreement),Whats the difference between the two morphemes“able”and“-able”?,able(adj.in“Im,able,to do it”),-able(e.g.,“enjoy,able,”),able,lexical(free)morpheme,-able derivational morpheme,Cross-Classification,The bound/free and content/function distinctions are not the same.Some examples:,ContentFunction,Bound,cran-ed,Free,dogthe,Internal structure of words,Words have an internal structure that requires analysis into constituents(much like syntactic structure does),For example:,Unusable,contains three pieces:un-,use,-able,Question:,Is the order,derive,use-able,then add,un,-;or,derive,un-use,then add-,able,Word Structure,Possibilities:,Structure 1Structure 2,un use able un use able,Consider:,With,able,we create adjectives meaning capable of being V-ed,from verbs V,break/break-able;kick/kick-able,There is no verb,un-use,This is an argument that Structure 1 is correct:,un use able,This analysis fits well with what the word,means,as well:not capable of being used.Structure 2 would mean something like capable of not being used,Another example,Consider another word:,unlockable.,Focus on,un-,Note that in addition to applying to adjectives(,clear/unclear,),un-,applies to some verbs to give a kind of undoing or reversing meaning:,do,undo,zip,unzip,tie,untie,Note now that,unlockable,has two meanings,The,Unlockable,example,Two meanings:,Not capable of being locked,Capable of being unlocked,These meanings correspond to distinct structures:,1)2),un lock able un lock able,Structurally ambiguous words-,unlockable,Af,unlockable,V,V,unlockable,A,V,Af,Af,A,Af,A,The second structure is one in which,able,applies to the verb,unlock,This verb is itself created from,un-,and,lock,The meaning goes with this:capable of being unlocked,In structure 1,there is no verb,unlock,So the meaning is not capable of being locked,Word formation,1.,Derivation,:,(or Derivational affixation,Affixation),2.,Compounding,:combine two or more morphemes to form new words,3.,Reduplication,:full or partial repetition of a morpheme,4.,Blending,:parts of the words that are combined are deleted,5.,Clipping,:part of a word has been clipped off,6.,Acronyms,:abbreviate a longer term by taking the initial letters,7.,Back formation,:A word(usually a noun)is reduced to form another,word of a different type(usually a verb),8.,Extension of word formation rules,:Part of a word is treated as a,morpheme though its not,9.,Functional shift(Conversion),:A change in the part of speech,10.,Proper names,Common words,11.,Coining,:Creating a completely new free morpheme,12.,Onomatopoeia,:words imitate sounds in nature,13.,Borrowing,:,The taking over of words from other languages,1.Compounding,A compound is a complex word that is formed out of a combination of stems(as opposed to stem+affix),These function in a certain sense as one word,and have distinctive phonological patterns,Examples:,olive oil,shop talk,shoe polish,truck driver,An interesting property of compounds is that although they are words,they form a productive system,without limits(as far as grammar is concerned,not memory).,Note also that compounds have special accentual(stress)properties:,judge,trial judge,murder trial judge,murder trial judge reporter,murder trial judge reporter killer,murder trial judge reporter killer catcher,murder trial judge reporter killer catcher biographer,Some points about compounds,When the two words are in the same grammatical category,the compound will be in this category,e.g.,postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-black,When the two words fall into different categories,the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocket,Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence,e.g.red coat,green house,The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.,2,.Reduplication,Reduplication:,full,or,partial repetition,of a free morpheme;sometimes,with variation,so-so,一點點,zigzag,bye-bye,冷冰冰,dilly-dally,（拖拖拉拉）,天天,.,人人,蹦蹦跳,hotchpotch,來來往往,hodgepodge,(,大杂烩）,點點滴滴,mishmash,（混杂物,）,卿卿我我,3,.Blending,Blending(,blends,):,similar to compounding,but some parts of the free morphemes involved are lost(usually keeping 1st part of 1st word+end of 2nd word),e.g.,brunch,br,eakfast+l,unch,smog,sm,oke+f,og,motel,mo,tor+ho,tel,newscast,news,+broad,cast,telex,tel,eprinter+,ex,change,bit,bi,nary+dig,it,Reaganomics,Reagan,+eco,nomics,fantabulous,fanta,stic+fa,bulous,4,.Clipping,Clipping(,clipped forms,):,part of a free morpheme is cut off(i.e.,shortening a polysyllabic word);often in casual speech,e.g.,prof.math gas,phys-ed lab dorm,ad bike flu,poli-sci porn fax,5,.Acronyms,Acronyms:,abbreviate a longer term by taking the initial letters,A.follow the pronunciation patterns of Eng.,NATO,(North Atlantic Treaty Organization),TOEFL,(Test of Eng.as a Foreign Language),AIDS,(Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome),NASA,(National Aeronautics&Space Administration),UFO,(?),B.If unpronounceable,each letter is sounded out separately,ATM(automatic teller machine),I.Q.(intelligence quotient),MRT(Mass Rapid Transit),城市快速交通,MTV(music television),VCR(video cassette recorder),Acronyms lose their capitals to become everyday terms:,laser,(light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation),radar,(radio detecting and ranging),zip,(zone improvement plan),6,.Back formation,e.g.,editor,edit,donation,donate,burglar,burgle,zipper,zip,television,televise,babysitter,baby sit,Note:,derivational affixation:,teach teacher,back formation:,editor edit,7,.Onomatopoeia,Onomatopoeia:,words imitate sounds in nature(or in technology),but need to conform to phonological system of the language,A dog:,bow wow or woof-woof,汪汪,A clock:,tick-tock,滴答,A rooster:,cock-a-doodle-doo,咕咕咕,A camera:,click,喀擦,A duck:,quack,嘎嘎,A cat:,meow,喵喵,Ring of a bell:,ding-dong,叮咚,A cow:,moo,哞哞,A bee:,buzz,嗡嗡,A snake:,hiss,嘶嘶,8,.Borrowing,Borrowing(Borrowed words or loan-words):,the taking over of words from other languages,A.Loan translation(or calque):,direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language,hot dog,熱狗,superman,超人,B.Transliteration,cool,酷,DINK,頂客,YUPPIE,雅痞,9,.Coining,Coining(Coinage):,Creating a completely new free morpheme,which is unrelated to any existing morphemes;a rare thing,e.g.,googol,pooch,杂种狗,Nylon,Note 1,:“Kleenex,克里内克丝面巾纸,”“teflon,铁氟龙,”are not really coinages(according to Nashs definition)though Yule puts them under this category “Aspirin”(might have relation to chemical name)and“Xerox”(which might come from Greek)and“vaseline”are also questionable.,Note 2:,everyday usage of“coining”,linguistic definition of“coining”,10,.Extension of word formation rules,Extension of word formation rules:,Part of a word is treated as a morpheme though its not,burger,(mar)athon,a(lco)holic,ham,burger,tele,thon,work,aholic,cheese,burge,r dance,athon,buffalo,burger,walk,athon,步行马拉松,fish,burger,vege,burger,蔬菜包,tofu,burger,12,.Functional shift(Conversion),Functional shift(or conversion,category change):,A change in the part of speech,V N,a guess,a must,a spy,a printout,walk,run,laugh,touch,N V,position,process,contact,notice,party,fax,butter,bottle,(computer-related terms),input,output,format,V ADJ,see-through,a stand-up comedian,13.Inflection,Inflection:,Creates new forms of the same word in a way that introduces or expresses different grammatical properties,while retaining some core notions of meaning(and category),Example:,Play,and,Played,describe the same action,but situate it differently in time.,Inflectional morphology:,adds grammatical functions(i.e.,number,tense,aspect,gender,case),so related to syntax,but does not create new words(so not related to the lexicon).,Eng.:inflections(8 kinds)are all,suffixes,Other languages,(e.g.of prefixes&infixes),:,Quiche(spoken in Mexico):prefixes for tense,Inflectional categories,Languages differ with respect to which categories are expressed inflectionally on e.g.verbs.English,for instance,expresses,Person,(1st person,2nd person,3rd)in a limited way,as well as tense:,PresentPast,1spraiseprais-ed,2spraiseprais-ed,3spraise-sprais-ed,1ppraiseprais-ed,2ppraiseprais-ed,3ppraiseprais-ed,(s=singular,p=plural),Comparison,The expression of such inflectional categories is limited in English.Compare Latin(lauda:re praise):,PresentPast(imperfect),1slaud-o:lauda:-ba-m,2slauda:-slauda:-ba:-s,3slauda-tlauda:-ba-t,1plauda:-muslauda:-ba:-mus,2plauda:-tislauda:-ba:-tis,3plauda-ntlauda:-ba-nt,14.,Derivation,Processes which form new words,Processes occur according to rules(which show the relation between words and provide ways to form new words),.This is called as morphological rules(Page 37),Not all derivational rules have been figured out yet.,Derivation,As a basic working definition,derivational morphology,creates new words from existing ones.Basic properties:,Change of,category,or,part of speech,(noun,verb,adjective)is possible:,judge,judge-ment,New meaning added:e.g.,re-do,means to do again,No syntactic connections outside of the word,like with inflection(e.g.agreement relates a subject to a verb).This is not so if we have e.g.,kind