TheHistoryoftheU.doc

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　The History of the U.K.
I. The Origin of the Nation (outside Invasion (55BC-1066))
1. Roman Occupation Recorded History began in the year 55 BC, when Julius Caesar and his Roman troops invaded the land. Bet. the 8th and 5th centuries BC, the Celts became the dominant residents. Britain came from the Britons, a Celtic tribe.
In 55 and 54 BC, Britain was twice invaded by Julius Caesar and again by Claudius I in 43 AD.
2. Anglo-Saxon invasion
v In 410, Germanic warriors: the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes from today’s Denmark and Northern Germany landed.
v The language of the Angles became the dominant language, and the country became known as England, meaning “the land of the Angles”.
v St. Augustine, by order of Pope Gregory I, was sent to Britain to convert the Anglo-Saxons, and founded a church and a monastery in Canterbury and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in 601. By the late 7th century, Roman Christianity became the dominant religion in Britain.
v 3. The Vikings’ Invasion
v From the late 8th century on, the Vikings from Scandinavian countries, Norway and Denmark in particular began to attack the English coast. Alfred the Great united the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and recaptured London in 886.
v For about the next 130 years, the power constantly shifted bet. the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes. In 1052, Edward the Confessor(忏悔者) built Westminster Abby, where all of the nation’s coronation(加冕) ceremonies have been held ever since.
4. Norman Conquest in 1066 (The turning point of History)
On Christmas Day, 1066, Duke William of Normandy was crowned King of England in Westminster Abby, thus beginning the Norman Conquest of England, which marked the last time that an army from outside the British Isles succeeded in invading and the establishment of feudalism in England. Although officially William I of England, he is often referred to as William the Conqueror (1066-1087).
II. The Shaping of the Nation(1066-1381
1. William I’s policy towards the church and his Doomsday Book (末日审判书)
1).William I wanted to keep the church completely under his control, but meanwhile to uphold its power.
2).The Doomsday Book was the records of a survey of the land of England made by order of William I I 1086-1087, and used for tax purposes and as a general reference book of the population, its property, stock etc.. The survey was so called probably because the records were the final authority for disputes over property.
2. Henry II and his House of Plantagenet(金雀花王朝)(1154-1189)
1). Henry II ascended the throne in 1154 and built up a large empire including England and more than half of France.
2).Henry II is best remembered for his reform of the courts and the laws. He improved the courts of justice by introducing the jury system and institutionalized common law throughout the country with the help of the King’s Council (the Great Council大议会)，which was an assembly of the tenants-in-chief of any of the Norman kings and meet three times a year．
The Great Charter falls into 63 clauses, designed to prevent royal restriction of baronial privileges and feudal rights. It was a guarantee of the freedom of the church and a limitation of the king’s powers. Though it was made in the interests of the privileged class, it was of progressive significance in that it granted the townspeople freedom of trade and self-government. The merchants and craftsmen appeared for the first time as a political force. It is regarded as the foundation of the British constitutionalism and provides the basic principles for the protection of individual rights in both Britain and the United States. Despite all these general rights, nothing was said about serfs(农奴）.

4. The Hundred Years’ War and the Wars of the Roses in the 14th and 15th centuries
The Hundred’s War (1337-1453) was a series of wars bet. England and France over trade, territory, security and the throne. At first, the war went in England’s favor. But with French armies’ use of guns and gunpowder, the English bows and arrows lost their effectiveness. Besides, the French peasants rallied under Joan of Arc. At last, the English had lost all the territories they had gained during the war except the French port of Calais. The War had a significant impact on the English society. It promoted the concept of English nationalism and the development of the textile industry because it reduced the export of English wool. Also, the war raised the social position of the bourgeois class. All these factors caused the decline of feudalism in England.
The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) was a series of wars bet. two great noble families: the House of York, whose badge was a white rose, and the House of Lancaster, whose badge was a red rose. Almost all the noble families were involved in the war and suffered great loss of life and property. The wars lasted for 30 years. I n the end, the House of Lancaster won and their leader Henry Tudor became King Henry VII and started the rule of The House of Tudor(1485-1603). Under the Tudors, England became a national state with an efficient centralized government, and started changing from a medieval to a modern country.
What did the destruction of the Spanish Armada show (西班牙无敌舰队的毁灭说明了什么)？
King Philip II of Spain (Bloody Mary’s husband) was the most powerful and seemingly wealthy man in Europe in the latter half of the 16th century. His territories in the New World' brought him enormous wealth, though the expense of administering that far-flung empire meant that Spain was heavily in debt to foreign bankers. England, by comparison, was a relatively small nation, and not a particularly powerful or wealthy one.
In 1588, the Spanish Armada was sent to invade England by Philip II of Spain. It was attacked by an English fleet led by Drake and Howard
On Monday, July 29th, the two fleets met in battle of Gravelines. The English emerged victorious, although the Spanish losses were not great; only three ships were reported sunk, one captured, and four more ran aground(搁浅). Nevertheless, the Duke of Medina Sedonia determined that the Armada must return to Spain. The English blocked the Channel, so the only route open was north around the tip of Scotland, and down the coast of Ireland. It was then that the unpredictable English weather took a hand in the proceedings. A succession of storms scattered the Spanish ships, resulting in heavy losses. By the time the tattered（破旧的） Armada regained Spain（回到）, it had lost half its ships and three-quarters of its men.
In England the victory was greeted as a sign of divine approval for, the Protestant cause. The storms that scattered the Armada were seen as intervention by God. Services of thanks were held throughout the country, and a commemorative medal struck, with the word "God blew and they were scattered" inscribed on it. The success showed England's superiority as a naval power.

III. Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)
1. Religious Reformation
Henry VIII’ reformation of the English Church: Under his Act of Supremacy, England had separated the English Church from the Pope, and formed the Church of England under the King. All subjects were obliged to swear oaths affirming the King’s Supremacy as head of the Church and those who did not were imprisoned. This was still a savage age.
Under the chancellorship(首相) of Thomas Cromwell, things became more difficult still. The considerable Church property was confiscated and the monasteries were dissolved.
Young and sickly Edward VI (1547-1553) issued the new Prayer Book (1549-1552) separated the new English Church even further.
Queen Mary Tudor (1553-1558) , a catholic herself, ill advised and clumsily tried to restore the old Faith. Her bloody religious persecution earned her “Bloody Mary” but failed.
Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603) executed the church settlement(教会和解) to end Mary’s bloody religious persecution. She was inclined to support the Protestants, but she tried her best to make peace by appeasing the Catholics. Though working for a compromise bet. different religious sections, she defended the fruit of the Reformation in essence. To moderate the Catholics’ anger, she dropped the words ”head of the church” from the royal title. Under her reign the Church of England( the Anglican Church) was consolidated and is still known as the National Church.
2. The Civil War (1642-1649)
The two parties in the English Civil War
v The English Civil War was actually a war between King Charles I and the Parliament. Many nobles and gentry gathered round the King, including the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge as well as the Church party. The King’s men were called Cavaliers (骑士党人).
v The Parliament army was made up of yeoman farmers, middle-class townsmen, and artisans. The Presbyterians(长老会教义信徒) were on the side of the Parliament, and supporters of the Parliament were called Roundheads (圆颅党人) because of their short haircuts.
The consequence of the English Civil War
1) The English Civil War was also called the Puritan Revolution, because the King’s opponents were mainly Puritans, and his supporters chiefly Episcopalian (圣公会教徒)and Catholic. The War has been seen not only as a conflict between the Parliament and the King, but also a conflict between the economic interests of the urban middle classes and the traditional economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle class coincided with their religious (Puritan) ideology while the Crown’s traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief.
2) The English Civil War overthrew the feudal system in England, and shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe as well. It is generally regarded as the beginning of the world modern history.
v Oliver Cromwell (奥立弗·克伦威尔)
Oliver Cromwell, an English soldier, a statesman, and ruler of England, was the chief commander of the Parliamentarian forces in the English Civil War against Charles I and Lord Protector of the Realm (共和国护国公)( 1653--1658 ) in place of a king. He belonged to the landowning class in the east of England, and supported the Independents among the Puritans. It was his generalship that defeated the forces of Charles I , and the Scottish supporters of Charles II after the execution of Charles I. His brief ruling period increased Britain's international prestige. On his death he was succeeded by his son, Richard Cromwell, who resigned in 1659.
3. Restoration and the Glorious Revolution
Why did the Restoration take place?
When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658, he was succeeded by his son, Richard Cromwell. The regime immediately began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament was thus elected in 1660 and resolved the crisis by asking another son of the late king to return from his long exile in France as King CharlesⅡ(1660-1685). Britain prospered under Charles Ⅱ
The Glorious Revolution of 1688
When King Charles II died in 1685, he was succeeded by his brother JamesⅡ(1685--1688), who was a Catholic and was brought up in exile in Europe. King James II hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious views. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688 and marched upon London. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.
William III and his wife Mary II were both protestants and became co-monarchs. They accepted the Bill of Rights(权利法案), which marked the ascendancy(统治) of parliamentary authority over the divine right that had been claimed by the Stuarts. It‘s the beginning of the age of constitutional monarchy(君主立宪制) in the history of Britain.
４．The Industrial Revolution
v Why was Britain the first country to industrialize?
1) Britain had a huge market.( at home and abroad )
2) The colonies in America and India, England acquired enormous wealth with which to develop its industries.( The East India Company; the Royal African Company)
3) The enclosure movement deprived many small landowners of their property, creating a new class of “landless laborer” and providing enough free laborers for industry development.
How did the English Industrial Revolution proceed?
v Starting from the textile industry, the English Industrial Revolution was characterized by a series of inventions and improvements of machines, such as John Ray's flying shuttle, James Harpreaves’ spinning Jenny, Richard Arkwright's waterframe and Samuel Crompton's mule. The Scottish inventor James Watt produced very efficient steam engine in 1765, which could be applied to textile and other machinery.
v The most important element in speeding industrialization was the breakthrough in smelting iron with coke(焦炭) instead of charcoal in 1709. Similar developments occurred in the forging side of the iron industry that enabled iron to replace　wool and stone in many sectors of the economy. Improved transportation ran parallel with production.
v As a result of the Industrial Revolution, Britain was by 1830 the "workshop of the world"—no other country could compete with her in industrial production.
IV. The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688--1945)
1. The Formation of the Empire
1).The British Empire began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583
2). In 1837 (Queen Victoria ascended the throne) the First British Empire (colonies in Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, many small states in the West Indies which were started by individual business people for the purpose of trade )
3). The Second British Empire (The Victoria Age1837-1901)
Queen Victoria (the longest reign of any monarch in British history): encouraging further industrialization, the building of railways and the growth of trade and commerce; adopting a very aggressive foreign policy: New Imperialism
A. During the mid-19th century:
　Bringing colonies under the direct control of the　government. Australia, New Zealand and Canada became dominions (自治领)of Britain successively.
B. In 1876, Victoria took the title ”Empress of India” and India became the “brightest jewel” on the English Crown, which served as a springboard to expand their colonies and sphere of influence in Asia.
C. In East Asia: aggression against China in 1840 (the Opium War) —the Treaty of Nanking in 1842(Hong Kong was ceded, 5 ports were opened for trade, colonists were granted special privileges for travel and missionary activities in China)—some other small Asian states were colonized( Burma, Sri Lanka etc.)
D. On the African Continent: scrambling for the fertile and productive areas. In 1875, controlling the Suez Canal; conquering Egypt in 1882 and occupying s