Chapter6Pragmatics语用学.doc

Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学
Definition：
Pragmatics can be defined in various ways. It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.语言学研究语言使用者是如何运用语句进行成功交际的。
Pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. Pragmatics is a comparatively new branch of study in the area of linguistics.语用学也可看做是一种意义研究。语用学是语言学领域中一个比较新兴的研究分支。
Contextual view 语境论
Contextual view places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used.
Pragmatics vs. semantics 语用学 语义学
Gradually linguists found that it would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context was left unconsidered. Once the notion of context was taken into consideration , semantics spilled over into pragmatics. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语义学和语用学的根本区别在于意义研究是否考虑语境。不考虑语境，语义研究属于传统的语义学范围；考虑语境，意义研究就成了语用学研究的范围。
Context
Context is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.
语境是语用研究的关键概念，一般指交际双方的共有知识。分为两类：一类是交际者对所用语言本身的知识，另一类是对客观世界的知识，包括对客观世界的一般只是和对交际情景的具体知识。

Sentence meaning & utterance meaning
A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.
句子意义和话语意义
句子是一个语法概念，从述谓结构上来说，句子意义经常被看做是句子本身所具有地抽象的内在特征。但是如果把句子看成人们在交际过程中实际所说的话，它就成了话语，话语应该在其实际应用的情景中予以考虑。

EX：The dog is barking.
If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation ,then we are treating it as a sentence.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose , then we are treating it as an utterance.
把它看成语法单位时，它就是句子；把它看做说话人在特定情景中所说的带有特定目的的话，它就是话语。
While the meaning of a sentence is abstract , and decontextualizd ,an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning ; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication.
句子意义是抽象的，不依赖语境；而话语意义是具体的，依赖语境。话语意义基于句子意义，是句子意义在特定交际情景或者语境中的具体体现。

EX：My bag is heavy. 句子属于predication述谓结构BAG（BEING HEAVY）
It could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement , telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possible interpretation of the utterance is that the speaker is declining someone’s request for help.
这句句子的话语意义会随着语境的变化而变化。有两种解释：一种是直截了当的陈述；另一种就是希望别人能帮他拎包。

言语行为理论（Speech Act Theory）
Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication.
言语行为理论是语用学研究的一个重要理论。它是英国哲学家约翰·奥斯丁在20世纪50年代提出。从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释，目的在于回答“用语言干什么”这个问题。(What do we do when using language?)
Austin made a distinction between what he called “constatives” and “performatives”. Constatives were statements that either state or describe , and were thus verifiable; performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state , and were not verifiable
奥斯丁对表述句和施为句进行区分。表述句用来陈述和描述；施为句不陈述事实，也不描述情况，且不能验证。
四句典型：I do.
I name this ship Elizabeth.
I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.
I bet you sixpence it will rain tomorrow.
这四个例子都是规约化的例子。但是说话是通过讲话来实施某种行为的这个理论，把所有非规约化的行为包括进来，比如陈述，许诺，请求和建议。这种理论被成为言语行为理论。

Later on, Austin gave up his initial distinction between constatives and performatives.
He set a new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking : locutionary act, illocutionary act , and perlocutionary act.
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
之后奥斯丁建立了三种行为的新模式。“言内行为，言外行为，言后行为。”
言内行为是说出词，短语，分句的行为，是通过句法，词汇和音位等手段表达字面意义的行为。言外行为是表达说话人意图的行为，是在说话过程中所完成的行为。言后行为是通过说话完成或通过说话所产生的行为，是由话语所带来的结果或变化。

Ex： You have left the door wide open. The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words and expressed what the words literally mean.
此句的言后行为就是让人关门。

The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking , asking someone to close the door.

The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to ask someone to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.

Linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.
John·Searle has made his classification of illocutionary acts. Speech acts fall into five general categories.
语言学家在上述言语行为中最感兴趣的是言外行为，是说话人如何表达他的意图和听说人如何识别说话人的意图。
美国哲学语言学家约翰·舍尔对言语行为理论作出了很大的贡献。他将言外行为分成了五种基本类型：
1 阐述类（representatives）
(I state) I have never seen the man before.
2 指令类：（directives）
Open the window.
3 承诺类：（commisives）
I promise to come.
4 表达类：（expressives）
It’s really kind of you to have thought of me.
5 宣告类：（declarations）
I now declare the floor is open.
The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something’s being the truth of what has been said.
Stating, believing, swearing ,hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.
All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same illocutionary point., but they differ in their strength or force. Swear guess believe
会话原则 principle of conversation
As the objective of pragmatic study is to explain how language is used to effect successful communication and conversation, as the most common and natural form of communication has become the focus of interest for many scholars.
语用学研究的目的是要解释语言是如何用来进行成功交际的。

Paul·Grice found that formal logic couldn’t be applied to natural language, and thus concluded that natural language has its own logic.
保罗·格赖斯发现形式逻辑对自然语言不适用并因此得出结论：自然语言有自己的逻辑。
His idea is that in making conversation , the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is called the Cooperation Principle.(合作原则)
其观点：在会话中，参与会话的人首先得愿意合作，否则会话无法进行。此基本原则称为合作原则，简称CP。

There are four maxims under this general principle:
这条基本原则包括四种准则：
The maxim of quantity:
数量准则：
1 所说的话应包含（当前交谈目的）所需要的信息。
2 所说的话不包含超出需要的信息。

The maxim of quality:
质量原则：
1 不要说自知是虚假的话。
2 不要说缺乏足够证据的话。

The maxim of relation:
关联准则：
要有关联

The maxim of manner:
方式准则：
1 避免晦涩
2 避免歧义
3 说话要简练
4 要有条理
EX: Do you know where Mr.X lives？ Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.
违反了数量原则

Would you like to come to our party tonight？ I'm afraid I'm not feeling so well today.
They both knew that B feeling so well,but B cheated A. B breaks Quality Principle.违反质量原则

The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you think?
The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't they?
违反关联准则

Shall we get something for the kids？
Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
违反方式准则
While conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they don’t always observe these maxims strictly. For various reasons these maxims are violated. Most of these violations give rise to what Grice called “Conversational implicatures”. That is, when we violate any of these maxims, our language becomes indirect.

The significance of Grice’s CP lies in that it explains how it is possible for the apeaker to convey more than is literally said. As pragmatics focuses on the conveyance of meaning in the course of communication，CP is undoubtedly an important theory in the area.
格赖斯合作原则意义在于，它解释了说话人为何能够表达出超出字面意义的信息。由于语言学要关注交际过程中的意义传递，合作原则无疑是这一领域的重要理论。