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,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,本资料仅供参考，不能作为科学依据。谢谢。本资料仅供参考，不能作为科学依据。本资料仅供参考，不能作为科学依据。谢谢。本资料仅供参考，不能作为科学依据。,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,本资料仅供参考，不能作为科学依据。谢谢。本资料仅供参考，不能作为科学依据。本资料仅供参考，不能作为科学依据。谢谢。本资料仅供参考，不能作为科学依据。,Here is a long sentence:,I set out for the biggest bookstore in town,at the school gate I saw a girl of my class,she was going there,too,we decided to go together,we walked,the bookstore was not far away.,In fact,this is not one long sentence,but a series of short sentences:there are six of them.When a sentence is structurally complete,whether long or short,it should end with a full stop.So the six sentences should be punctuated like this:I set out for the biggest bookstore in town.At the school gate I saw a girl of my class.,She was going there,too.We decided to go together.We walked.The bookstore was not far away.,1/422,To join two or more complete sentences with commas may be possible in Chinese,but it is wrong in English.There is a name for such a mistake:the comma fault or the comma splice.We should remember that a complete declarative sentence always ends with a full stop.,F.Joining Clauses with Conjunctions,When two or more sentences are closely connected in meaning,it may be better to put them into one sentence than separate them.Then those sentences will become clauses which should be joined together with proper conjunctions or other words,like relative pronouns.,We should learn to distinguish between conjunctions and adverbs,such as but and however,so and therefore.We can join coordinate clauses with a comma and a conjunction,or with a semicolon,or with a semicolon and an adverb:,2/422,She enjoys listening to pop music,but her sister doesnt.She enjoys listening to pop music;her sister,however,likes classical music better.She enjoys listening to pop music;however,her sister doesnt like it.,In the following sentences the commas should be replaced with semicolons:,She speaks English fluently,moreover,she speaks French quite well.,The plans for the building are not yet ready,therefore the construction cannot start very soon.,It is wrong to use commas in these two sentences because,moreover,and,therefore,are adverbs,not conjunctions.,G.A Main Clause in a Complex Sentence,3/422,main clauses are missing.In certain contexts,such as a conversation,a clause may be treated as a complete sentence,when a part of the sentence has been said by another person,e.g.,Why hasnt Mr.Brown said anything?,Because he doesnt speak Russian.,The main clause of the answer(Mr.Brown hasnt said anything)is understood.,H.Proper Use of Comparisons,Adjectives or adverbs of the comparative degree should be used only when there is a comparison.They are rightly used in the following sentences:,His latest novel is more interesting than all his earlier works.,She speaks better than she writes.,4/422,In a complex sentence there must be a main clause,whether it is at the beginning,in the middle or at the end of the sentence:,He would come to see me whenever he was in this city.,When she heard the explosion,she called me immediately to ask what had happened.,Not until the meeting had come to an end did they realize the seriousness of the problem discussed.,There is a main clause in each of the above three sentences.,Because he had not heard about that important decision.,Whatever the director said at the conference.,The man we could find for the job.,These are not complete sentences because they are only adverbial,subject(or object),or attributive clauses,while the,5/422,main clauses are missing.In certain contexts,such as a conversation,a clause may be treated as a complete sentence,when a part of the sentence has been said by another person,e.g.,Why hasnt Mr.Brown said anything?,Because he doesnt speak Russian.,The main clause of the answer(Mr.Brown hasnt said anything)is understood.,H.Proper Use of Comparisons,Adjectives or adverbs of the comparative degree should be used only when there is a comparison.They are rightly used in the following sentences:,His latest novel is more interesting than all his earlier works.,6/422,She speaks better than she writes.,He talks more than he does.,Sometimes a comparison is implied:,Most of his poems are difficult to understand.This one is not easier.,The meaning of the second sentence is quite clear:this poem is not easier than his other poems.,But we should not use adjectives or adverbs of the comparative degree when there is no comparison,explicit or implied,like the following:,He is a better student.(He is a good student/a fairly good student.),This text is easier.(This text is fairly easy/quite easy.).,7/422,In addition,we should remember that only things of the same kind can be compared.The following comparisons are not logical:,Her English is much better than I.,The language of Henry James is more elaborate than Ernest Hemingway.,Mine,should have been used instead of,I,in the first sentence and,that of,put before Ernest Hemingway in the second.,I.Correct Use of the Tenses,Since a predicate verb must be used in a certain tense,we should learn to use the tenses correctly.Whenever we make a sentence,we should ask ourselves when the thing mentioned in the sentence happens,and use the right tense to report it.,8/422,Perhaps,the perfect tenses are more difficult than the other tenses and deserve greater attention.,When we talk:about something that happened in the past,even a few minutes ago,we should use the simple past tense.,When we talk:about something that happened in the past,but its result remains at present,we should use the present perfect.,Compare:,I went to the book exhibition yesterday.,I have been to the book exhibition.,The first sentence tells the listener the time when the speaker went to the exhibition,while the second sentence means that the speaker knows what the exhibition is like and perhaps he or she does not want to go there again.In the following sentences there are tense mistakes:,9/422,x,We have revised our work plan last night.,x They changed their timetable and they are working according to it.,x,This is his latest novel.Did you read it?,x,We are going to the Great Wall.Did you ever go there?,x,He has been a friend of mine for a few years,but we are no longer in touch.,The simple past tense should have been used in the first and last sentences,and the present perfect in the others(revised,have changed,have you read,have you ever been,was a friend).,x,I have read the book for several days and will finish it tonight.,10/422,x,She has done the work alone and is still doing it.,The present perfect continuous should have been used in the above two sentences because they refer to things that are still going on(have been reading,has been doing).,Sometimes we fail to use the past perfect when we should.Here are examples:,x,He visited all the historical monuments he wanted to see for a long time.,x She was appointed principal of the school because she studied education and taught for many years.,The past perfect tense should have been used in the attributive clause in the first sentence(he had wanted to see)and in the adverbial clause in the second(because she had studied.and taught.).,11/422,So far we have been talking about the requirements of correct sentences and a few common mistakes.There are of course many other types of mistake.The best way to deal with them is to review grammar and study the entries we are not clear about in a dictionary,and observe the uses of words,expressions and structures when we are reading a well-written book.In other words,while we are learning new things,we can discover and correct our old mistakes.The fourth requirement of a sentence(completeness and singleness in meaning)will be discussed in the section on effective sentences.,Topics for Discussion(讨论题):,1,What are those essential requirements of a correct,English,sentence?,2How can we avoid tense errors in writing?,12/422,IV.Coordination and Subordination,When we mention two or more things or ideas of equal importance,we often use coordinate clauses joined with a coordinating conjunction,(and,but,or,nor,yet,so,or,fo,r).This form or method is called coordination.When we express an important idea in a main clause and one or more less important ideas in subordinate clauses,we are using the method of subordination.It is clear that the choice of coordination or subordination is mainly decided by the relationship between the ideas to be expressed.,In each of the following sentences more than one fact or idea is mentioned.Let us see whether coordination is preferable to subordination or the other way round.,13/422,This rich man went to church every Sunday,and he never donated a cent for the benefit of his neighborhood.,This rich man went to church every Sunday,but he never donated a cent for the benefit of his neighborhood.,Although he was rich and went to church every Sunday,he never donated a cent for the benefit of his neighborhood.,When we compare these three sentences,we feel that the second,with but,is stronger than the first,and the third may be the best one,for there the main idea is expressed in the main clause and is emphasized.,14/422,Although he went on talking as if he would never stop,no one was listening to him.He went on talking as if he would never stop,but no one was listening to him.,He talked and talked,and it seemed that he would never stop,but no one was listening to him.,Here coordination may be better than subordination,for in a compound sentence all the three ideas get equal emphasis.,There is one thing we should pay attention to:the use of conjunctive adverbs such as,however,therefore,nevertheless,moreover,and,besides,.As these words are not conjunctions,they are used after a conjunction or a semicolon(not a comma)to join clauses:,15/422,He is an eloquent speaker;however,he lacks depth.,Neither manpower nor raw material was sufficient,and therefore the progress of the work was slower than expected.,She is deeply interested in European art;moreover,she is fond of classical Western music.,Here is a group of short sentences:,I waked up at 6:30.I thought I was late.I washed quickly.Then I went into the kitchen.I found something to eat.I finished eating in a few minutes.I took my bike and hurried out.I rode very fast along the streets.Soon I was at the school gate.,16/422,But it was closed.Then I realized that it was Saturday.,When we read these short sentences,we feel that,though they describe things clearly,they are choppy and not very impressive.Here are two different versions:,I waked up at 6:30.Thinking that I would be late for school,I washed quickly,went into the kitchen,and found something to eat.Then I hurried out with my bike.I rode as fast as I could along the streets,and soon got to the school gate,but it was closed.Only then did I realize that it was Saturday.,It was already 6:30 when I waked up.Thinking that I would be late for school,I washed and ate something in a hurry,.,17/422,I got on my bike and set out for school.On the,streets I rode as fast as I could,and in no time I was at the school gate,only to find it closed.Then I remembered that it was Saturday.,In these two versions some sentences are combined by way of coordination or subordination,and the total effect may be better than that of the original passage,because they give the reader the feeling of haste and urgency.,In the new versions not only clauses,but also parallel predicate verbs and participial and infinitive phrases are used in place of sentences.,18/422,This shows that coordinating and subordinating are not the only ways of combining sentences.Sometimes complete sentences may be turned into phrases or single verbs without loss in meaning.,Here is another passage made up of short sentences:,I like reading novels.They often tell me interesting and moving stories.Some stories are also instructive.They describe good and evil people.They describe the bright side and the dark side of life.They help me distinguish between right and wrong.In this way they have helped me to understand people and life.,19/422,As a result,I seem to have become wiser.,Now let us try to combine some of the sentences and at the same time make important ideas prominent:,I like reading novels because they tell interesting and moving stories.Moreover,some stories are instructive.By describing good and evil people,and the bright side and the dark side of life,such stories help me to distinguish between right and wrong,and understand people and life.Reading them has perhaps made me wiser.,This new version is perhaps more compact than the original,and its main idea(what the writer has learned from novels)is made more prominent.,20/422,Two of the original short sentences are not merged with others(the third and the last one),This is because they express very important ideas,and short sentences are generally emphatic.,Short sentences are not only emphatic,but effective in describing a series of quick movements and actions(see next section).,Generally speaking,both short and long sentences should be used;using one type of sentences continuously would be monotonous.,Topics for Discussion(讨论题):,1.,How can sentences be combined?,2.what is the basic difference between coordination and subordination?,21/422,V.Effective Sentences,A correct sentence may not express the idea it intends to express very clearly or forcefully.Correctness alone cannot make a good sentence.It has to be effective at the same time.Effective sentences have some or all of the following qualities:unity,coherence,conciseness,emphasis,and variety.,A.Unity,Unity refers to two qualities:there is only one main idea in a sentence,and that idea is complete,This does not mean that all sentences have to be short and simple.It is often necessary to write,22/422,a long sentence with many parts in it.Such a sentence expresses a central idea supported or modified by various subordinate ideas,or two or more related parallel ideas.In other words,ideas that are closely connected can be expressed in one sentence,while ideas that are not closely connected should not be put into one sentence.,The explorer who has just returned from the Antarctic is busy writing reports on his adventures on that ice-covered continent,where he did not see any animals except penguins.,This is a long sentence with many parts,including two clauses.It has one central idea(the explorer is writing reports on his adventures in the Antarctic)and all the other ideas are related to this central idea.,23/422,Here is a short sentence:,Born in Sichuan Province,he later became a famous writer.,This is a correct but not a good sentence,because the two facts mentioned in it are not logically connected:a man born in Sichuan is not certain to become a famous writer.We can say that the sentence lacks unity.To make the meaning clear,we have to say something about his education and work experience that helped to make him a famous writer.,He visited all the famous historical monuments of this ancie
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