德国政治理论传统论纲：康德、黑格尔、尼采(下).docx

德国政治理论传统论纲：康德、黑格尔、尼采（下）4、理解与政治对政治的理解与对文本的理解有相近的涵义，因为哲学的任务在于理解存在的东西，而存在的东西就是理性。所以理解就其本意而言，即是理解存在，也就是理解理性。这就是黑格尔书写在法哲学原理？quot；序言“中的名言：”凡是合乎理性的东西都是现实的；凡是现实的东西都是合乎理性的“ 的真实涵义。同时，也可以很容易的理解，黑格尔为什么一开始就谈到该书的前提，即从一个论题进展到另一个论题以及进行科学论证的那种哲学方法，即整套思辩的认识方法 ，换言之，逻辑学或辩证法为研究政治设置了科学化的前提。法哲学或国家学的任务即是遵从哲学探究理性的一般任务，”把国家作为其自身是一种理性的东西来理解和叙述的尝试，除此以外，它什么也不是“， 所以列奥？斯特劳斯说，”黑格尔不想构造理想的国家，而是想以证明现实的国家的合理性来恢复国家的应有地位“， 就是非常精当的了。而且黑格尔认为，”哲学是被把握在思想中的它的时代“ ，理性无法超越自己的时代，而只能以理性反思的形式对现实世界进行理解，只能使自己与现实相一致，承认理性是”现实的十字架上的蔷薇“ ，所以哲学的职能并非教导国家应该如何，而是教导人们如何以科学的方式来理解国家，理解本身即是理性与现实之间的桥梁“关于教导世界应该怎样，也必须略为谈一谈。在这方面，无论如何哲学总是来的太迟。哲学作为有关世界的思想，要直到现实结束其形成过程并完成其自身之后，才会出现。概念所教导的也必然就是历史所呈示的。这就是说，直到现实成熟了，理想的东西才会对实在的东西显现出来，并在把握了这同一个实在世界的实体之后，才把它建成为一个理智王国的形态。当哲学把它的灰色绘成灰色的时候，这一生活形态就变老了。对灰色绘成灰色，不能使生活形态变得年轻，而只能作为认识的对象。密纳发的猫头鹰要等黄昏到来，才会起飞” .5、合理性与现实性的关系作为引导性的基本提问，在自在自为的自由的意志这一理念的不同发展阶段中获得了具体的体现，诚然，理念的发展构成为形式与内容的统一的具体意义？；因为在最具体的意义上，形式就是作为概念认识的那种理性，而内容是作为伦理现实和自然现实的实体性的本质的那种理性，两者自觉的统一就是哲学理念“ .同时，以意志与自由为主题的国家学的性质必须在与整体的联系中才能演绎出来，感情经过表象以达于思维这一发展中所经历的种种规定，就是它作为意志而产生自己的途径，而这种意志作为一般的实践精神是最靠近于理智的真理的” ，这一论述的真实涵义在于，与黑格尔整体逻辑学的构思相一致，国家学严格遵循着辩证法的形式，而赋予国家本身的现实性以合理的内容，这表现为意志在国家的现实存在中所经历的辨证相关的不同阶段A、 意志是直接的，即人格，表现为实在法和形式法的领域；B、 意志从外部定在出发在自身中反思着，于是被规定为与普遍物对立的主观单一性，表现为主观意志的法，即道德；C、 作为这两个抽象环节的统一和真理，被思考的善的理念在那个在自身中反思着的意志和外部世界中获得了实现，以至于作为实体的自由不仅作为主观意志而且也作为现实性和必然性而实存；这就是在它绝对的普遍的实存中的理念，也就是伦理。而伦理的实体同时是C1、自然精神：家庭；C2、在它的分裂或现象中市民社会；C3、国家，即表现为特殊意志的自由独立性的那种自由，既是普遍的又是客观的自由。意志或自由在自在自为的程度上现实化的过程，蕴涵了双重运动，国家在其中完成了以特殊性为基础的从属环节和以普遍概念为基础的理性必然性的综合。这一过程同时就是精神现象学中自我意识发展史的某些阶段，即所谓客观精神超越主观精神以及客观精神的现实化的环节，虽然在黑格尔的解决线路中，客观精神与主观精神的冲突要依靠绝对精神来完成，从而国家学必须进入到世界历史中去，但是，与此相应，却揭示了黑格尔总结德国唯心论而形成的逻辑泛神论体系的真正要害，所谓古代与现代，主人与奴隶，个体与国家，抽象自由与具体自由，主观自由与客观自由，特殊与普遍，道德与伦理种种关键的二元对立都可以在理解黑格尔在主观精神、客观精神以及绝对精神的关联中得到基本廓清，可以说，把握了“精神”概念及其内部的相互环节，其他连带的问题线路即一目了然了。德国政治哲学论纲：黑格尔关于黑格尔政治哲学的论纲1、 黑格尔的政治哲学需要放在后康德的德国观念论中，更紧要的，是放在唯心论与浪漫派的关联中，一方面是康德-费希特-谢林-黑格尔；另一方面却是哈曼-赫尔德-浪漫派-德国诗歌运动-叔本华的对立、结合、衍生中，这样才能理解黑格尔试图在历史辩证法中统一古代与现代、雅典与耶路撒冷、唯心论与浪漫派，从而建立 “精神” 整全的雄伟动机。2、 黑格尔vs.康德黑格尔首先反对康德is/ought之间的绝对区分 ，认为事实与规范之间蕴涵着相互型构的要素，而在辩证法中，可以完成事实与规范之间的相互转化；正反合三重结构以辨证逻辑是对形式逻辑的克服。黑格尔反对康德依靠is/ought的绝对区分来建立理性的先验原则立法机能的普遍有效性，反对康德理论理性与实践理性的形式性、抽象性、普遍性、反思性，认为理性是历史境遇的产物，习俗、习惯、传统、时代等等历史的沉积物对理性本身的有效性构成极大的限制，从而，哲学不可能超越于时代，哲学家不可能发现真理，更不可能设立规范，“密纳发的猫头鹰只在黄昏起飞”。黑格尔反对康德，借助辩证法形式使精神在历史中和解的集中表现是他的名言：世界历史就是世界审判。3、 国家与个体国家与个体在相互独立又相互关联的方向上建构为现代政治史的主体，从外在与内在的双重角度深化了政治理性化的复杂性。特别的，在黑格尔的论域中，国家与个体还要放在主观精神-客观精神-绝对精神的谱系中，在黑格尔看来，国家构成了个体的最终目的，个体也在国家中找到了存在、义务和满足的真理，同时国家也构成了神在外在世界中的实现或显现“国家与个体的关系本质上是相互的，国家只是以自由和满足为自身目的的个人的最终目的。在国家中，个体超越了自私的、个人的思想和愿望，超越了黑格尔所谓单纯主观精神的存在。通过国家，个体懂得了将自己的愿望普遍化，亦即将这些愿望化做法律，并根据法律而生活。国家是一个实在而不是一个投影，因为国家是可以经历、可以思想的东西。只有通过国家个体才能取得他在世界中的地位，只有作为一个公民他才知道自己的愿望中什么是合理的。这是客观精神的阶段。但是，”神“，即绝对或理性，既不由国家构成也不由国家穷尽。国家只是采用绝对精神并使绝对精神成为可能。绝对精神是艺术、宗教、哲学的源泉，而这三者在某种意义上是超越国家的。当黑格尔把国家说成是神的时候，他不过是说，国家应该受到尊重，因为归根到底国家因合理性而存在，尽管国家有明显的缺点和偶然性，但国家依然是国家”。批评对待国家的两种错误态度黑格尔反对浪漫派、空想家和改革家，认为前者厌恶政治，后二者则厌恶现实的国家而热中于理想的国家。黑格尔认为哲学的职能不是教导国家应该如何，而是教导人民如何理解国家。“国家是个人活动的最终结果，但在结果中它起源于个人的活动这一事实却消失了”。国家的起源国家源于冲突，在精神现象学中描述的“主奴辩证法”同样是国家产生的基础：“为承认所进行的斗争和对统治的服从是政治生活的起点，也是国家的开端”。解决主奴之间冲突，是国家的职能。国家所实行的调节有两面性。一方面，国家得以建立的基础是相互性：其公民相互承认；它是主人和奴隶未能实现的那种相互承认的根据。另一方面国家自身内存在劳动和需要以及牺牲和战争两个环节。这两方面的矛盾表现为“市民社会”与“国家”的对立，“资产者”和“公民”的对立。现代国家的问题就是容忍这两个环节并使它们协调一致起来。4、 主观自由与客观自由的统一主观自由：个体意识，与特殊性相应；客观自由：实体的普遍意志，与普遍性相应。希腊世界的不完善及其没落，是不能正确理解特殊性原则的结果；在罗马帝国，个体性得到了承认，但却是抽象的和外在的被承认的；法国大革命以抽象的和个人主义的形式理解现代国家，而没有为组织和政府或任何具体的东西留下余地，并且以否定性和破坏的自由造成了绝对恐怖，抽象原则一直支配着法国的政治生活，始终存在着政治家与思想家的对立，政府同人民的对立。黑格尔认为，只要个人满足于承认普遍的东西为法则，并以国家为目的，那么国家作为“具体的自由”就是主观自由与客观自由的统一。黑格尔说，“特殊与普遍在国家中的统一是一切事物的基础”，与历史上的国家类型相比，只有现代国家实现了特殊与普遍的真正结合。5、 现代国家：历史的目的与统一的基础康德是第一个将政治哲学转化为历史哲学的思想家，而且，历史哲学的发生在德国观念论中有着极为深刻的渊源，内在于德国思想品质之内。在黑格尔那里，历史的主题和目的是逐渐展示自由，或揭示精神在历史进程中所达到的自我意识。自由在国家中的实现，是因为：“一方面现代国家区分和展现了自由的不同环节和方面，另一方面则因为自由现在已显现为人的本质，所有的人都在国家中，并且知道他们在国家中本质上是自由的。脱胎于基督教及宗教改革的现代国家整合了现代经济政治的要素，不断以道德教育的形式将将特殊性提升到普遍性。这种教育的诸种阶段，或具体道德精神的诸环节，是家庭、市民社会和国家。6、 家庭、市民社会和国家双重运动：即国家在其中完成了以特殊性为基础的从属环节和以普遍概念为基础的理性必然性的综合，作为伦理性的实体，他们分别是a） 自然精神家庭；b） 在它的分裂或现象中市民社会；c） 国家，即表现为特殊意志的自由独立性的那种自由，既是普遍的又是客观的自由。这一现实的和有机的精神，其关于一个民族的，通过民族精神的相互关系，在世界历史中实现自己并显示为普遍世界精神。这一普遍精神的法乃是最高的法。社会与国家的张力作为出发点，以及作为黑格尔解决问题的合题，是需要特别注意的。德国政治哲学论纲：尼采Note on NietzscheAs Leo strauss describes ， when the three waves of modernity is transformed from Rousseau to Nietzsche， in the sense of the discovery of history ，the reply to the modernity as crisis turns from harmony/peace to terror/anguish. If put Nietzsche back to German Idealisnm， it is so clear that， for him， the tradition of German ideas after Kant， even after Luther， including both German idealism and Romanticism， plays great influence on the birth of Nietzsche， especially Schopenhauer and Wagner whom we have to think of. And， it is very important to relate Nietzsche with the historical situations of 19th century as a chaotic and anguish time， either. When we enter the ideas of Nietzsche， it will be apparent that， in what sense， 19th century turns the crisis of time . As the beginning ，it is enough to take the crisis as a whole crisis of culture ，of subjectivity， of being.1、 The subject of “history /historicity”After Kant， the subject of history /historicity “happens ”to be the main line to solve metaphysics question. A living developing history process， toward rational/natural right/end， appears in the focus of various systems. In the end， the concept of universal history as symbols of spirit can shed light on both contemplative and active life， eg， Hegels history dialectics. In Nietzsches point， the demands of philosophy of history are fairly specific： it is to understand both the constraints and possibilities of practices at any point in time， and to understand how history is reproduced by these practices. Horizon， that can differ historical being from non-historical being， only belong to creative subjectivity who could experience perspective horizon as practices. As concerned with the importance of history， Nietzsche follows the tradition of German ideas， even Hegel. However， we have to point out that， unlike Hegels dialectics of life， who views history from the outside as a trans-individual process of development， as if we could have held the absolute objective perspective like God， Nietzsche requires a “subjective” view， who wants to see history from the “inside”， one that would capture the individuals narrative perspective and sense for the meaningfulness of self， world， and action. In the popular article， “On the use and disadvantage of history for life”， he assembles the criticism of the several modern approaches to history ：the “monumental”， the “antiquarian”， the “objective” and the Hegelian. His new affirmation lies on relating effective history to present life directly. The perspective of present life to view history escapes from the common sense of time， and especially integrates time around the present. Thus， history is inherently pluralistic， complex， and in large degree contingent， without unified logic， purpose， or teleology as a whole. The horizon of life， of present life， sheds light on history， and in time， effective history is embodied in each subjectivity.2、 The genealogy of crisisThe conception of culture presupposes an action frame of reference in Nietzsches sense. In the Untimely Mediations， he defines culture as the “ unity of artistic style in every life-expression of a people.” Insofar， as a people forms a “mighty community”， it is “held together not by external forms and laws， but by a fundamental idea of culture ”For Nietzsche， it is along the similar line that culture declines and at the same time， the total crisis constructs its own genealogy. In short words， we can describe the genealogy as followed： Greek： The tragedy gets the highest point. While the inquiry to the nature of human being comes into existence， say， Socrates， who unifies knowledge， good ，and politics into the question of “what is nature”， culture begins declining. When Plato constructs the dualism of form and matter that plays great influence upon Western philosophy， there happen to be the birth of crisis. Christianity： It is peoples Platonism， as Nietzsche tells us. Christianity continues the dualism， especially， God own other-world and take care of this-world， who create the world contingently. The dualism influences on peoples morality， that is what Nietzsche says， the relation of master to slave morality. Christianity itself is going on losing the subjectivity. Modern Time： As secularized time， modern contains the crisis coming from Platonic- Christian dualism. It shows its characters of crisis in even every sense， including culture， state， society， etc. Surely， the unique and real subjectivity is lost. Person really becomes mask It is a time of Nihilism.3、 Nihilism： negative and positive directionWhen describing the total crisis， we can say， in short sentence， we have come to a time of Nihilism. Confronted with a life we are compelled to live without intellectual grounds of conduct， a life in which “everything is permitted”， how to act and not to act is questionable. In negative sense， Nietzsche regards the genealogy of crisis as the genealogy of Nihilism， in other words， Nihilism is the very character of modern culture， which continues the traditional dualism and traditional morality. It needs going beyond， since it is the very possibility of goal-directed， meaningful action that Nihilism draws into question. At the same time， to transcend the Nihilism which cause the modern crisis， we have to get a new- Nihilism， say， in Nietzsches sense， the positive Nihilism， for the classical symptoms of Nihilism “the felling of nothingness ”，the “pathos of in vain”， and meaninglessnessonly express a failure to relate interpretations of self and world to possibilities of practice. Then， Nietzsche draws a conclusion that we have to cancel/discard the dualism of Western tradition： Platonic-Christian culture. In this direction， Nihilism liberate the world as contingency and power from Absolute，the process of directly and really experiencing the subjectivity as practices/agent/self is possible. In the time， the coduct of sovereign individuality maintains the evaluation of everything. It is important to remark the stimulus， even the total stimulus： will to power .4、 Will to powerWe could easily make sure that modernity concerns the process ， within which the individual looks for its God by itself after the declaration from Nietzsche： God is dead. Nietzsche sees the full development of the individual conditioned by the most ruthless struggle of individuals. “Let us be so far honest toward ourselves ”，he says，“ for everything is a consequence of the will to power， which is precisely the will to life-a fundamental fact of all history ”。 When will to power is conditioned with the life as practices， it is apparent that he use the term to refer to the world ，to life， to interpretive activities ，to affectability and pathos， to desire for the “feeling of power”， and to organizing forces. According to Mark Warrens Nietzsche and Political thought， we find out that at least we can understand this term along different directions as such， in which it is a new day opens to us to discover who and what we are on earth： a） Will to power shows the character of the affectivity， or pathos of existence that is， our sensual embodied world. b） Will to power denote a physis： the world in itself is a field of forces， actions， and reactions， here the concept as a cosmological conception of totality. c） Will to power： interprets：it defines， limits， determines degree， variations of power. Mere variations of power could not feel themselves to be such： there must be something present that wants to grow and interprets the values of whatever else itself wants to know.d） Will to power as autonomy of the self is a universal motive， and thus a universal value of the self-reflective beings.e） Will to power produces a conception of history consistent with Nietzsches genealogical method， in which sense he conceives of practices as a confluence of those kinds of historical inheritances demarcated by the will to power. RemarksNon-metaphysicsThe conception of will to power is not the definition of the world， not in ontological sense ，even say， it only tries to show the characters of the world in the time of Nihilism as a test.returnAs Warren states，“ the doctrine of eternal return constructs a conception of identity that is compatible with embodied experience and historicity because it is an identity in progress ，an identity that is constructed and reconstructed out of experience by means of engaging the world ” We can see that， the doctrine of eternal return is more existential than such a certain opinion about the dimension of time， even if at the basement of nihilism， Nietzsche opposites to Platonic- Christian time ideas. When we are going to open the horizon toward new reality， say， oward the future， the question will appear how to experience the past by virtue of the form toward the new self-identity. Based on the motive of will to power， eternal return of the same cuts into various power-relations of historical horizons and then connects old form with new matter together into self-identity. In this sense， will to power can be realized and identified by virtue of external return， arrive at its highest pole， overcoming itself and living its own life， and open for everything.5、Superman： some imagesIn certain sense， Nietzsche is constructing the new subjectivity in the cruel days. We can easily see the birth of subjectivity through his description of superman as the opposition to world of last man. Superman belongs to the future， who obtains the opportunities to relate vis contemplativa to vis creativa. Only in the world of superman， can the quarrel between poem and philosophy be replaced by experiencing the practices as actions. On earth， what are the images of superman to Nietzsche？ Maybe it is the baby， who is declaring that “being /becoming” after “ought ” and “will”； Maybe it is Zarathastra ， who creates the world of history beyond good and evil like God of Old Scripture. Maybe it is Nietzsche himself， who is the unique artist of present ， in the sense of living a good life， Nietzsche tries to return to the classic sight of political philosophy by experiencing will to power to live he present life.