十要素市场二部分.pptx

Hours WorkedThe typical American works between 35 and 40 hours a week.Nonetheless,many workers work as much as 50 to 60 hours a week at the same,or a second,job.In fact,there are a variety of incentives such as over-time pay that can greatly affect hours worked.（一）劳动供给及工资的决定（一）劳动供给及工资的决定 劳动的供给问题可以看成是消费者在工资水平一定时劳动的供给问题可以看成是消费者在工资水平一定时如何决定其拥有的时间资源在闲暇和劳动供给这两种如何决定其拥有的时间资源在闲暇和劳动供给这两种用途上的分配，即自用资源（闲暇）和收入（劳动收用途上的分配，即自用资源（闲暇）和收入（劳动收入）之间的选择。入）之间的选择。市场活动市场活动劳动劳动收入收入效用效用 时间资源时间资源 非市场活动非市场活动闲暇闲暇效用效用 工资是闲暇的机会成本，相当于闲暇的工资是闲暇的机会成本，相当于闲暇的“价格价格”HK0U0AH0U1H1BK1H2U2CK2Y16EY 时间资源在闲暇和劳动之间的分配时间资源在闲暇和劳动之间的分配W0Y=W（16-H）Y（要素收入）（要素收入）闲暇闲暇收入收入预算线：K0=16W0+Y（非要素收入）（非要素收入）Y（非要素收入）（非要素收入）K1=16W1+Y（非要素收入）（非要素收入）Y（非要素收入）（非要素收入）Backward Bending Curve 原因：替代效应：WL收入效应：WL注：右图中的注：右图中的a、b、c是由左图中相应的是由左图中相应的A、B、C而得来的而得来的 HK0U0AH0U1H1BK1H2U2CK2YPEP16EY 时间资源在闲暇和劳动之间的分配时间资源在闲暇和劳动之间的分配W16-HabcW2W1W016-H016-H116-H2 消费者的劳动供给曲线消费者的劳动供给曲线SY=W（16-H）闲暇闲暇收入收入K0=16W0+YThe ReasonAt higher wages,workers can afford more leisure even though each extra hour of leisure costs more in wages foregone.To see this,put yourself in the shoes of a worker who is offered higher hourly rates and the freedom to choose the number of hours worked.The Substitution EffectThe more you work,the more you will earn so each hour of leisure becomes more expensive to you as the wage rate rises.Your incentive,then,is to substitute work for leisure.The Income EffectThe higher the wage,the higher your income so you will be able to take that extra week of vacation to ski in Colorado or sun yourself in Miami.At what point in this graph do you think the income effect dominates?Income Income Effect Effect DominatesDominatesSubstitution Substitution Effect Effect DominatesDominatesBackward Bending Curve工资上升，意味着闲暇商品的价格上升工资上升，意味着闲暇商品的价格上升，人们会减少闲暇消费，转向消费，人们会减少闲暇消费，转向消费更多的其它商品。所以替代效应使更多的其它商品。所以替代效应使工资上升后，增加了劳动时间。工资上升后，增加了劳动时间。工资上升，人们的收入也增加，工资上升，人们的收入也增加，人们会用更多的收入购买各人们会用更多的收入购买各种商品，包括闲暇商品，从种商品，包括闲暇商品，从而减少了劳动时间。此乃工而减少了劳动时间。此乃工资率的收入效应。资率的收入效应。这两种效应同时存在，哪种效应更大则这两种效应同时存在，哪种效应更大则要看工资水平的高低：要看工资水平的高低：在工资水平较低时，替代效应较强，工在工资水平较低时，替代效应较强，工资的上升会诱使劳动者增加工作时数；资的上升会诱使劳动者增加工作时数；在工资水平较高时，收入效应较强，这在工资水平较高时，收入效应较强，这时工资上升允许劳动者减少工作时间而时工资上升允许劳动者减少工作时间而不影响其生活消费水平。不影响其生活消费水平。因此，供给曲线成为一条向后弯曲的曲因此，供给曲线成为一条向后弯曲的曲线。线。(二)Market Labor SupplyAs we saw earlier,if the labor supply curve shifts,then wages can rise or fall.The three major determinants of labor supply are 劳动力的参与程度劳动力的参与程度 工作时间长度工作时间长度 人口的流动人口的流动Labor Force Participation One of the most dramatic developments One of the most dramatic developments in labor force participation over the last in labor force participation over the last half-century has been the sharp influxhalf-century has been the sharp influx流流入入 of women into the work force.of women into the work force.In fact,that participation has roughly In fact,that participation has roughly doubled since 1950,from 34%to about doubled since 1950,from 34%to about 60%today.60%today.At The Same TimeLabor force participation by older men has fallen sharply,particularly for men over 65 a change probably due in large part to changes in programs such as Medicare and Social Security which offer far more generous health and retirement benefits.Immigration A final important determinant of labor A final important determinant of labor supply is immigration.supply is immigration.In recent years,this has become a In recent years,this has become a potent political issue for many reasons,potent political issue for many reasons,not perhaps the least of which is that as not perhaps the least of which is that as immigration increases,every thing else immigration increases,every thing else being equal,wages tend to decline.being equal,wages tend to decline.One Way This Happened Since 1970,the percentage of the Since 1970,the percentage of the foreign-born United States population foreign-born United States population has nearly doubled,from only 5 percent has nearly doubled,from only 5 percent to almost 10 percent.to almost 10 percent.More importantly,the characteristics of More importantly,the characteristics of the immigrants have changed.the immigrants have changed.During The 1950sEurope and Canada were the major sources of primarily high-skilled workers.However,beginning in the 1980s,the biggest groups of now primarily less skilled and less educated immigrants have come from places like Mexico,the Philippines,and Vietnam as well as from Central American and Caribbean countries like Nicaragua尼加拉瓜尼加拉瓜 and Jamaica.（牙买加）（牙买加）The ResultA significant increase in the supply of low-skilled workers and a sharp decline in the wages of less-educated groups relative to the college-educated-just as our theory would predict.工资的决定工资的决定均衡工资水平均衡工资水平是由劳动的供是由劳动的供给曲线和劳动给曲线和劳动的需求曲线的的需求曲线的交点所决定的。交点所决定的。WLDSEL0W0第四节第四节 Wages Under Differing Market StructuresLets start with imperfect competition in the product market.What do you think will be the big difference here?Imperfect CompetitionThe monopolist,the oligopolist,or the monopolistic competitor will face a demand curve for its product that is downward sloping.That,in turn,means that the firm must accept a lower price to increase its sales.(一一)、卖方垄断的要素使用原则、卖方垄断的要素使用原则卖方垄断：卖方垄断：厂商在产品市场上垄断，要素市场完全竞争厂商在产品市场上垄断，要素市场完全竞争The Point:The lower price that accompanies every increase in output applies in each case not only to the marginal product of each successive worker but also to all prior units which otherwise would be sold at a higher price.MRP=$13.00MRP=$13.00Will the MRP curve be more or less elastic for the imperfectly Will the MRP curve be more or less elastic for the imperfectly competitive producer relative to the purely competitive producer?competitive producer relative to the purely competitive producer?边际收益产品边际收益产品MRP1,R=R(Q)Q=Q(L)R=RQ(L)MRP=MR*MP2,R=P*Q R=P*Q=PQ(L)*Q(L)R=P(Q)*Q MR=卖方垄断的边际收益产品曲线卖方垄断的边际收益产品曲线。MRP=MRMPWOL卖方垄断的卖方垄断的MFC=Wage Rate C=W*LW=W0（厂商的要素供给函数）厂商的要素供给函数）MFC=dC（L）/dL=WWLW0卖方垄断的要素使用原则卖方垄断的要素使用原则卖方垄断：卖方垄断：厂商在产品市场上垄断，厂商在产品市场上垄断，要素市场完全竞争要素市场完全竞争MRP=MFC=WWLW0卖方垄断的卖方垄断的要素需求曲线要素需求曲线在卖方垄断情况在卖方垄断情况下，厂商的要素下，厂商的要素需求曲线与其边需求曲线与其边际收益产品曲线际收益产品曲线重合重合。存在存在n个厂商，则个厂商，则WoLoW1L1MRP=MRMPWOLMRP=W(二二)、买方垄断的要素使用原则、买方垄断的要素使用原则 (Imperfect Competition In The Labor Market)买方垄断买方垄断:厂商在产品市场上完全竞争，要素市场不完厂商在产品市场上完全竞争，要素市场不完全竞争全竞争Lets go back to assuming perfect competition in the product market.What happens if there is imperfect competition in the labor market itself?In this case,there are two polar两极的两极的 possibilities:monopsony独家买主垄断独家买主垄断 and monopoly.Monopsony The typical example of monopsony is The typical example of monopsony is the so-called company town,and the so-called company town,and monopsony has the following monopsony has the following characteristics.characteristics.First,the firms employment is a large First,the firms employment is a large portion of the total employment of a portion of the total employment of a particular kind of labor such as coal particular kind of labor such as coal mining or food processing.mining or food processing.Second The workers are relatively immobile,The workers are relatively immobile,meaning that workers dont or cant meaning that workers dont or cant move easily from the area.move easily from the area.This might happen if they have strong This might happen if they have strong family ties to an area.family ties to an area.It may also happen in the sense that,if It may also happen in the sense that,if workers sought alternative employment,workers sought alternative employment,they would have to acquire new skills.they would have to acquire new skills.Monopsonies Are Not Uncommon From New England textile mill and From New England textile mill and Colorado silver-mining towns to farm-Colorado silver-mining towns to farm-belt food-processing communities and belt food-processing communities and remote Montana mining areas,the remote Montana mining areas,the economies of many towns and cities in economies of many towns and cities in America depend almost entirely on one America depend almost entirely on one major firm.major firm.The Firm Is A Wage MakerThe wage rate the firm pays varies directly with the number of workers it employs.And unlike a firm hiring workers in a perfectly competitive labor market,the monopsonist does not simply hire all the labor it wants at the equilibrium market wage.MRP(VMP)MRP(VMP)MRPMRPS SS SWWmmQQmmWWc cQQc cQuantity of laborQuantity of laborWage rate(dollars)Wage rate(dollars)QQThe monopsonists MFC is not The monopsonists MFC is not equal to the wage paid to the equal to the wage paid to the additional worker as in perfect additional worker as in perfect competition but rather is equal to a competition but rather is equal to a higher amount.higher amount.买方垄断的买方垄断的MFCW=W（L）C=L*W（L）（MRP）VMP=MFCdW/dL0 W0 W0 W0 W0 WMFC 利润函数：利润函数：=TR-TC=P*Q-WL-rK4，产品市场：不完全竞争，产品市场：不完全竞争要素市场：不完全竞争要素市场：不完全竞争利润函数：利润函数：=TR-TC=P*Q-WL-rK对对L求导求导