资源描述
Chapter 1 Introduction
What is linguistics? 什么是语言学
[A] The definition of linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究)
Process of linguistic study:
① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;
② Hypotheses are formulated;
③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;
④ A linguistic theory is constructed.
[B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究
1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)
2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)
3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)
4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)
5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction
6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use
Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society
Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind
Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning
Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics
[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics
① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性
② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）
The description of a language at some point in time;
The description of a language as it changes through time.
③ Speech and writing 言语与文字
Spoken language is primary, not the written
④ Langue and parole 语言和言语
Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)
Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community（指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统）
Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use（指语言在实际运用中的实现）
⑤ Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用
Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)
Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）
Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication.（这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现）
What is language? 什么是语言
[A] The definition of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。)
a) System: combined together according to rules （根据规则组合在一起）
b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for（语言符号和符号所代表的事物之间没有内在的必然的联系）
c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages （所有语言的首要媒介都是声音）
d) Human: language is human-specific （语言是人类所独有的）
[B]Design features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication （识别特征是指人类语言区别于任何动物交际系统的本质特征）
①Arbitrariness（任意性）
There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.
While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.（意义和语音之间没有什么逻辑的联系；虽然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）
a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words （拟声词）
b) some compound words （某些复合词）
②Productivity（能产性，创造性）
Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness)
★③Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）
Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)（语言是一个系统，包含两组结构或者两个层面。在较低/基本层面存在着语音结构，其自身没有什么意义；较高层面存在着意义单位；结构的双重性/语言的双层性）
④Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)
⑤Cultural transition（文化传递性）
While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.
The above 5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language.
Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学
[A] The definition of phonetics（语音学）
Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）
Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.（发音语音学）
Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.（听觉语音学）
Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.（声学语音学）
[B] Organs of speech （发音器官）
Voiceless:清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.
Voiced (Voicing): 浊音when the vocal cords声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.
All the English vowels元音are typically voiced (voicing).
The important cavities:
The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔
The oral cavity 口腔
The nasal cavity 鼻腔
其他部位：Lips唇1, teeth齿2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈3, hard palate硬腭4, soft palate (velum)软腭5, uvula小舌6, tip of tongue舌尖7, blade of tongue舌面8, back of tongue舌后9, vocal cords声带10
[C] Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad and narrow transcriptions
（语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音）
IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association国际语音协会/国际音标)
Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only （代表字母的符号）
Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics （变音符）
E.g.:
[l]à[li:f]--à a clear [l] (no diacritic)
[l]à[bild]--àa dark [l] (~)
[l]à[help]--àa dental [l] ( )
[p]à[pit]--àan aspirated [ph](h表示送气)
[p]à[spit]--àan unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)
[n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal [n] (7)
[D] Classification of English consonants（英语辅音的分类）
In terms of manner of articulation 根据发音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created)
①Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly
[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]
②Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month
[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [∫]/[з], [θ]/[δ], [h] (approximant)
③Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives [t∫]/[dз]
④Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth
[l]àa lateral sound; [r]à retroflex
⑤Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)
Liquid + glides + [h]à approximants
⑥Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it
[m], [n], [η]
By place of articulation根据发音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created)
①bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w]à(velar)
②labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v]
③dental齿音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [θ]/[δ]
④alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]
⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate [θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз], [j]
⑥velars软腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [η]
⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h]
[E] Classification of English vowels （英语元音的分类）
① The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back;
② The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open;
③ The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):
All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except [B]
All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels
④ The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowels
Larynx à (tense) or (lax)
Monophthongs, diphthongs
Cardinal vowels
[F] The definition of phonology（音位学）
Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.
Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
[G] Phone, phoneme, and allophone（音素、音位、音位变体）
Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）
Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit. （音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）
Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体）
[H] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体）
Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.
E.g. pin & bin à /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe à /p/ vs. /b/ （要会判断！）
Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.
Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.
[I] Some rules in phonology
① sequential rules 序列规则
Phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring in onset: 如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则：
No1:
___/s/ 第一个音位一定是/s/
___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/ 第二个音位一定是/p/, /t/, /k/
___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三个音位一定是/r/, /l/, /w/, /j/
No2:
The affricates [t∫],[dз] and the sibilants [s],[z],[θ],[δ] are not to be followed by another sibilants.
② assimilation rules 同化规则
Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.
Assimilation & elision effects 元音省略
Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other
E.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.鼻音化现象
③ deletion rule/Elision 省略规则
Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation
E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音
[J] Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）
① Stress重音
Word stress & sentence stress
The stress of the English compounds always on the first element
② Tone声调
Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.像音素一样可以区别意义
Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones. 汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调
Level, rise, fall-rise, fall 阴平 阳平 上声 去声
③ Intonation 语调
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones 四种语调
The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone 降调 声调 将声调 升降调
Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学
[A] The definition of morphology
Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（指对词的内部结构以及构词规则的研究）
Morpheme:词素 the most basic element of meaning.（意义的最基本要素）
(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function最小的意义单位或者语法功能)
[B] Free morphemes & bound morphemes（自由词素和黏着词素）
Free morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words
à Lexical morphemes [n.a.v] & functional morphemes [conj.prep.art.pron.]
Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form
à Derivational morphemes派生词素àaffix词缀 (suffix, infix, prefix) + root 后缀 中缀 前缀+词根
à Inflectional morphemes 曲折词素à 8 types of inflectional morphemes in English
Noun+ -’s, -s [possessive所有格; plural复数]
Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular第三人称单数; present participle现在分词; past tense过去式, past participle过去分词]
Adj + -er, -est [comparative比较级; superlative最高级]
[C] Derivational vs. Inflectional 派生（范畴/语类）和曲折（语法标志）
Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word 只表示语法标志（时态、数、格）
Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category词的范畴;
Derivational morphemes are opposite
Order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 词根/词干+派生+曲折
[D] Morphological Rules 形态学规则（词的构成方式à词素是怎样组合成为词）
N. +lyà a.; A. +lyà adv.; guard overgeneralization
[E] Morphs and allomorphs 语素和语素变体
Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemes
Allomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.
e.g.
map----maps [s]
dog----dogs [z]
watch----watches [iz]
mouse----mice [ai]
ox----oxen [n]
tooth----teeth
sheep----sheep
Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.
[F] Word-formation process（构词法）
① Coinageàthe invention of totally new terms （创造全新的词）
② Borrowingàthe taking over of words form other languages
③ Compoundingà a joining of two separate words to produce a single form （组成复合词）
④ Blendingà taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word
⑤ Clippingà a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form
⑥ Back formationà a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word
⑦ Conversionà category change, functional shift
⑧ Acronymsà new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words
⑨ Derivationà the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words（添加词缀）
⑩ Abbreviationà a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form （缩短原词）
Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学
[A] The definition of syntax
Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and rules that govern the formation of sentences（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）
[C] Types of sentences
Simple sentence简单句: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
Coordinate (Compound) sentence并列（复合）句: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or”…
Complex sentence复杂句: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated i
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