新编简明英语语言学教程-第二版-戴炜栋.pptx

Chapter 5 SemanticsSemantics-thestudyoflanguagemeaning.Whatismeaning?-Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.Some views concerning the study of meaningNamingtheory(Plato)（命名论）Theconceptualistview（概念观）Contextualism(Bloomfield)（语境论）Behaviorism（行为主义）Naming theory(Plato)Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.Limitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,phoenix3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatredThe conceptualist viewTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediation（对概念的综合理解及分析）ofconceptsinthemind.Ogden:gdn and Richards:semantic triangleSymbol/form:words/phrases/sentencesReferent（指指 示示 物物）:object in the world of experienceThought/reference(所指所指):concepts in mindThesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueof（依靠）theconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.The contextualism（语境理论）（语境理论）Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,contextelementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:Situationalcontext:spatiotemporal（时 空 的）situation.Linguisticcontext:theprobabilityofawordsco-occurrenceorcollocation.Forexample,“black”inblackhair&blacksheep（害群之马）differs in meaning;“the president of theUnited States”can mean either the president orpresidencyindifferentsituation.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandthe response it calls forth（引 出）in thehearer”.ThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_r-s_R(physical stimulus)(verbal response)(verbal stimulus)(non-verbalresponse)(wantstheapple)(speakstoJack)(hears)(givesJill)Lexical meaningSenseandreferencearebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.Sense(意义)reference(语义)nSense-is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form;it is abstract and de-contextualized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.For example,the word“dog”is given the definition“a domesticated(驯化的)canine（犬牙）mammal,occurring in many breeds(一胎多仔）that show a great variety in size and form”.This doesnt refer to any particular dog that exist in the real world,but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition.So this is the sense of the word“dog”.nReference-what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.If we say“The dog is barking”,we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation;the word“dog”refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer.This is the reference of the word“dog”in this particular situation.NoteLinguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstarandtheeveningstar,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.*Venus金星在西边时是eveningstar长庚星在东边时是morningstar启明星Major sense relationsnSynonymy snnm(同义现象)nAntonymy nt,nmi（反义现象）nPolysemy pl,sim（多义现象）n Homonymy homnm（同音/形异义现象）nHyponymy haipnimi（下义关系）SynonymysnnmSynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonymssn,nm-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrolgasoline2)Stylisticsynonyms-synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning,e.g.collaborator（合作者）accomplice（帮凶）,4)Collocational（搭配的）synonyms,e.g.accuseof（控告）,chargewith,rebuke（谴责）for;5)Semantically different synonyms,e.g.amaze（suggesting confusing and bewilderment）,astound(suggesting difficulty in believing),Antonymy nt,nmnGradable（分级）antonyms-there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,nComplementary（互补）antonyms-the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,nRelational（关系）opposites-exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,Polysemy pl,simnPolysemy-the same one word may have more than one meaning,e.g.“table”may mean:A piece of furniture（餐桌）All the people seated at a table（坐同一桌的人）The food that is put on a table（餐食，伙食）A thin flat piece of stone,metal,wood,etc.（板）Orderly arrangement of facts,figures,etc.（表格）Homonymy homnmHomonymy-thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Homophone（同音词）-whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,Homogragh（同形词）-whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),Completehomonym（同音/形词）-whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.means,ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,Note:Apolymeric（聚合的）wordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword(theetymology（语源学）oftheword)e.g.table;whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence（巧合）,e.g.ball（球）-ball（舞会）.*Ambiguity&PunningAmbiguityreferstoexpressionshavingmorethanonemeaningwhichoccurwithoutanyspecialintention.Punningistoplayonwordsforawittyorhumorouseffectbyusinghomonyms(同音同形异义词),homophones(同音异形异义词)orPolysems（多义词）.Ambiguity1.Thestudentscomplainedtoeveryonethattheycouldntunderstand.2.Thedogistoohottoeat.3.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.4.Thefatmanagerswifeisfondofshopping5.Hedidnotleavehomebecausehewasafraidofhiswife.1.Thestudentscomplainedtoeveryonethattheycouldntunderstand.a.学生向所有人抱怨他们无法理解b.学生向所有无法理解的人抱怨2.Thedogistoohottoeat.a.狗热到吃不下东西.b.狗肉太热让人没办法吃3.Flyingplanescanbedangerous.a.正在飞的飞机很危险b.飞飞机会很危险（开飞机或飞纸飞机）4.Thefatmanagerswifeisfondofshoppinga.那个胖经理的妻子爱购物（经理胖）b.那个胖胖的经理夫人爱购物（经理夫人胖）5.Hedidnotleavehomebecausehewasafraidofhiswife.a.他不是因为怕媳妇儿才离开的家b.他因为怕媳妇儿，不敢离开家1.这份报告，我写不好。a.这份报告，我没能力写好。b.这份报告，我来写不适合。2.大家对护林员揭发林业局带头偷运木料的问题，普遍感到非常气愤。a.大家对护林员揭发感到非常气愤。b.大家对林业局带头偷运木料普遍感到非常气愤。3.无鱼肉亦可无鸡鸭亦可唯青菜萝卜不可少不得一分工钱。无鱼，肉亦可；无鸡，鸭亦可；唯青菜萝卜不可。少不得一分工钱。无鱼肉亦可，无鸡鸭亦可，唯青菜萝卜不可少。不得一分工钱。Punning1.Itwaslunchtimeandtheonlyofficerondutywasafortyishblackmanwithshort,pressedhair,apencilmustacheandaneatlypressedbrownsuit.Everythingabouthimsuggestedacarefullydressedauthority.(B1 L4TheBoyandtheBankOfficer)-to dress:1)toputonclothes;2)tomakeup(做头发、梳理);2.BenBattlewasawarriorbold,Andusedtowarsalarms:ButaCannon-balltookoffhislegs,Sohelaiddownhisarms.(partofthebody;weapon)(theuseofhomonyms)(ThomasHoodFaithlessNellyGrey)3.Wehavecoursestomakegrownmenyoungandyoungmengroan.(theuseofhomophones)4.Redsblackwhite-collargoods.(theuseofPolysems)1.宝钗笑道：“原来这叫负荆请罪！你们通今博古，才知道负荆请罪，我不知什么叫负荆请罪。”红楼梦2.不写情词不写诗，一方素帕记心知；心知接到颠倒看，横也丝来竖也丝。这般心事有谁知？素帕Hyponymy haipnimi（下义关系）（下义关系）Hyponymy-thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Superordinate（上坐标词）:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.Co-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.HyponymynSuperordinate:flowernHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum（菊花）,peony（牡丹花）,narcissus（水仙花）,nSuperordinate:furniturenHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser（梳妆台）,wardrobe（衣橱）,sofa,Sense relations between sentences(1)Xissynonymous（近似）withY(2)Xisinconsistent（不一致）withY(3)XentailsY（包含）(4)XpresupposesY（预示）(5)Xisacontradiction（矛盾）(6)Xissemanticallyanomalousnmls（反常的）X is synonymous with YX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.X:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.X is inconsistent with YX:Heissingle.Y:Hehasawife.X:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.Y:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.X entails YX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.X presupposes YX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.Y:Hehasabike.Paulhasgivenupsmoking.Pauloncesmoked.IfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.X is a contradiction*Myunmarriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.*Theorphansparentsareprettywell-off.X is semantically anomalous*Themanispregnant.*Thetablehasbadintentions.*Sincerityshakeshandswiththeblackapple.Analysis of meaningComponentialanalysis（成分分析）Predicationanalysis（述谓结构分析）Componential analysisComponentialanalysis-awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissected(切开,分析)intomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,Man:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE有生命的,+MALEBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEPredication analysis1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g.Thedogbitestheman.Themanbitesthedog.*semanticallydifferentwhilecomponentsexactlythesame.2)There are two aspects to sentence meaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.*Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions（选择限制）-constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.Predicationanalysis-awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).Predication-theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)（变元）andpredicate（谓词）.Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelements(名词性成分)inasentence.Apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.e.g.Tomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)Tomsmokes.Tomissmoking.Tomhasbeensmoking.Tom,smoke!DoesTomsmoke?Tomdoesnotsmoke.Thetreegrowswell.TREE(GROW)Thekidslikeapples.KID,APPLE(LIKE)Isenthimaletter.I,HIM,LETTER(SEND)Itishot.(BEHOT)Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:One-place predication（一 位 述 位 结 构）:smoke,grow,rise,run,(Hesmokes.)Two-place predication:like,love,save,bite,beat,(Ilikeit.)Three-place predication:give,sent,promise,call,(Shegiveshimabook.)No-placepredication:Itishot.