2024清洁氢生产路径报告.pdf

2024hydrogeneurope.euThisreporthasbeenpreparedbytheHydrogenEuropeSecretariat;thestatements contained herein reflect the views of the Hydrogen Europe Secretariatand not of Hydrogen Europe members.It is being provided for general informationonly.The information contained in this report is derived from selected public andprivate sources.Hydrogen Europe,in providing the information,believes that theinformation it uses comes from reliable sources but does not guarantee theaccuracy or completeness of this information.Hydrogen Europe assumes noobligation to update any information contained herein.That information issubject to change without notice,and nothing in this document shall beconstrued as such a guarantee.This report does not constitute technical,investment,legal,tax,or any otheradvice.Hydrogen Europe will not be held liable for any direct or indirect damageincurred using the information provided and will not give any indemnities.Thispublication and any map included herein are without prejudice to the status of orsovereignty over any territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers andboundaries and the name of any territory,city,or area.Hydrogen Europe would like to thank all members of Hydrogen Europe who havecontributed their time and expertise to making of this report.Main authors:Matus Muron,Grzegorz Pawelec,Daniel FrailePictures copyright:Hydrogen Europe(pgs.1,19),Canva(pgs.37,47,58)and JustinJin for Hydrogen Europe(pg.68).DISCLAIMER AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT3Table of contentsExecutive SummaryExecutive summary 4Introduction and Methodology151.Water electrolysis 192.Reforming with carbon capture 373.Methane splitting 474.Biowaste-to-hydrogen 585.Non-biological waste-to-hydrogen 686.Other production pathways 777.Policy recommendations 90References95EXECUTIVE SUMMARY5Various clean hydrogen production technologies will be needed for sufficientvolumes for Net Zeroby 2050Source:Hydrogen Europe,BNEFBNEFs New Energy Outlook estimates 34 Mt and54 Mt of clean hydrogen by 2040 and 2050respectively to achieve Net Zero in Europe by2050.Achieving those volumes requires a massivescale up from around 0.05 Mt of clean hydrogenproduction capacity via water electrolysys inoperation currently(June 2024).While water electrolysis has a significant costreduction potential and offers important benefitsfromawiderenergysystemperspectiveincluding the possiblity for coupling of the gasand electricity sectors-thus supporting anincreased penetration of renewable energy inthe energy system,other technologies besideswaterelectrolysiscanalsoproducecleanhydrogen and contribute to achieving Net Zeroby 2050 in Europe.This is especially crucial forregions weresupply of renewable energy iseither scarce or expensive.These include reforming with carbon capture,methane splitting,biowaste-to-hydrogen,andnon-biological waste-to-hydrogen.Each clean hydrogen production pathways hasits unique benefits and challenges related toscale,feedstock,GHGintensity,costs,infrastructurerequirements,andregulatorytreatment.0.0514345501020304050602024 waterelectrolysiscapacity2030 demand forNet Zero2040 demand forNet Zero2050 demand forNet ZeroMt/yFigure A:Hydrogen consumption required for Europe to achieve Net Zero by 2050 vs 2024 European water electrolysis capacityExecutive Summary6Different production pathways offer unique benefits from sector coupling to locallybased decarbonisationWater electrolysisElectricityNatural gasNatural gasBiowasteNon-biowasteWater electrolysisReforming with carbon capturePyrolysisGasification/pyrolysisGasification/pyrolysis-Coupling electricity and gas sectors-Grid flexibility-Delivering renewable electricity to hard to electrify sectors-Unleashing stranded renewable energy and transport it between regions-Large scale-Available feedstock supply-Mature technology allows rapid delivery of low-carbon hydrogen for decarbonisation-Large scale potential;-Available feedstock supply-Zero direct emissions without need for additional infrastructure-Supply of solid carbon.-Utilising available local biowaste feedstocks;-Abating otherwise unabated emissions;-Carbon removal potential;-Promoting locally based decarbonisation-Availability of local non-recyclable waste;-Promoting locally based decarbonisation-Contribution to waste managementUnique technology benefitsTechnologyMain feedstock or energy inputReforming with carbon captureMethane splittingBiowaste-to-hydrogenNon-biological waste-to-hydrogenFigure B:Unique technology benefits of the five clean hydrogen production pathways included in the reportExecutive Summary7Most of the assessed production technologies are available and at or close tocommercialisationTechnology readiness levels:TRL 6 Pilot demonstration,TRL 7 Full scale system demonstration in operational environment,TRL 8-Experimented in deployment conditions and systemcomplete,TRL 9-CommercialExecutive SummaryFigure C:Technology readiness level and deployment of the five clean hydrogen production pathways included in the reportLow temperature:9High temperature:86-986-86-8Low temperature:2.5 GWel;High temperature:DEPiped gasNL-DEEU-MixPiped gasRussia-EUShippedLNGFigure 2.7:Upstream emissions for natural gas energy input depending on the source of supply(in gCO2eq/MJ)2.Reforming with carbon captureEmissions45Carbon capture rate:Other than upstream emissions of natural gas supply,the otherkey factor determining the final GHG intensity is the achieved CO2 capture rate.As hasbeen explained,depending on the approach the capture rate can be around 60%(limiting carbon capture only to SMR process gas)or even up to 97%(ATR with carboncapture).The importance of achieving a high capture rate is demonstrated on Figure2.8.If the capture rate were to fall in the range of 55-65%the GHG intensity of hydrogenwould be well above the required limit for that hydrogen to qualify as a low-carbonfuel even with strict methane leakages prevention.The only possibility to producehydrogen at an emission level below 28.2 gCO2eq/MJ with a low CO2 capture ratewould be to use biogas(or biogas/natural gas mixture)as feedstock instead ofnatural gas.With biogas from maize the total emissions would be around 20 gCO2/MJ(2.4 kgCO2eq/kgH2)and If advanced biogas sources would be used such as biogasfrom wetmanure,even a net-negative emission level couldbe achieved.On the other hand when using gas with high carbon footprint,like LNG or Russiangas,even 100%carbon capture rate would not be enough to produce hydrogenqualifying as low-carbon.Excluded from the analysis:It should be noted however that the above estimations donot include emissions related to CO2 compression/liquefaction,transportation andstorage,which in extreme circumstances(CO2 liquefaction using GHG intensive gridelectricity and shipment of CO2 to offshore storage site),could add as much as 0.5-0.7kgCO2/kgH2 of additional GHG emissions.Another important factor to consider areadditional methane leakages from the production process itself.As methane is apotent GHG(with a GWP around 30 x higher than CO2)in order to ensure a low-carboncharacter of produced hydrogen,methane leaks should be closely monitored and,ifpossible,avoided.Reforming of natural gas with CCS can only result in low-carbon hydrogen if a veryhighcarbon capture rate is ensuredNotes:Low-carbon threshold refers to 70%below fossil fuel comparator of 94 gCO2/MJ=28.2 gCO2/MJ=3.4 kgCO2eq/kgH2 as established in the decarbonised gas and hydrogen package.The error bars on thegraphs indicate emissions level with the minimum(63%)and maximum(94%)CO2 capture rate.Assumptions for the calculated GHG emission intensity values:Indirect electricity GHG emission intensity of 66.1gCO2/MJ;Indirectemissionsfrom gas from variouslocations;Direct gas combustion emissions 56.2 gCO2/MJ,CO2 capture rate between 63 and 94%;Source:Hydrogen Europe;European Commission;Equinor;DBI Gas-undUmwelttechnik;US Department of Energy0.60.60.60.60.6-1.11.22.53.44.5-20246810Biogas-maizePiped gasNO-DENG-RED IIIdefaultvaluePiped gasRussia-EUShipped LNGGHG intensity kgCO2eq/kgH2DirectIndirectFigure 2.8:GHG emissions for hydrogen produced via gas reforming depending on gas source and carbon capture rateAdditional direct emissions in case of lower(63%)CO2 capture rate compared to the base case of 94%Low-carbon GHG threshold2.Reforming with carbon captureEmissions46 CO2 transport and storage infrastructure While there are projects planning to build this infrastructure in Norway,Netherlands,UK,and elsewhere,mostly focused on industrial clusters,the infrastructure largely does not yet exist.A lack of CO2 infrastructureavailability is even more prominent for landlocked countries with no existing CO2 pipeline to a maritime port from which the CO2could be shipped out.CO2 storage potential It isnt evenly distributed among EU member states,leading to some installations transporting CO2 over largedistances,making the required emission threshold even more difficult to attain.Gas infrastructure dependence-Dependence on existing gas infrastructure that might slowly decrease its utilization,endangeringsupply for this technology while potentially locking in the use of natural gas infrastructure in the future.Slowing hydrogen infrastructure buildout-As majority of hydrogen infrastructure will be repurposed,increasing the use of thistechnology and gas infrastructure could be detrimental to repurposing gas infrastructure to hydrogen infrastructure.Planning-Lack of integrated infrastructure planning aimed at reconverting existing infrastructure towards H2 and CO2 transport forindustrial clusters and regional integrationTechnologySustainabilityUpstream emissions-Europe will continue to be an importer of natural gas.Under current geopolitical conditions,large percentage ofthis natural gas will be imported as LNG from US,Middle East,and elsewhere.The upstream emissions associated with this feedstockpresent a significant challenge for producing hydrogen below the 3.4 kgCO2eq/kgH2 threshold.CO2 transport and storage infrastructure availability are limiting reforming withcarbon captures geographical potentialCarbon capture rates-While various plants applied carbon capture technology on hydrogen production around the world,e.g.Air Liquideat Port Jerome,Air Products at Port Arthur,their carbon capture rates are significantly lower than the 94%assumed in the modelling in thisreport.There are 116 projects in various stages of development(from concept to construction)around the world planning to develop newreforming facilities and most of those with high carbon capture rates(above 90%).Infrastructure2.Reforming with carbon captureScalability challengesMethane splitting refers to hydrogen production through dry decomposition ofmethane(CH4)and is commonly referred as methane pyrolysis.Unique technology benefits Availability of natural gas and the relatedinfrastructure allows this technology to scale to volumes needed for industrialapplications.The generation of solid carbon by-products with their ownmarkets further improves the tec nologys competitiveness.TechnologyDifferentmethanesplittingtechnologiesareatvarioustechnology readiness levels,but pilot,demonstration,and commercial plantsare all being built.Technology R&D is focusing on improving hydrogen purity,the form and quality of the solid carbon by-product,energy consumption,durability/degradation of the reactor,price and availability of used catalysts,and transitioning from batch production to continuous production.Costs Feedstock accounts for 45%of the costs of producing hydrogen bymethane splitting and by-product revenues can reduce that cost by 34%in thebase case scenario.At February 2024 gas prices,hydrogen from methanesplitting could be priced for 2.3 EUR/kg or lower depending on the solid carbonprices.Emissions Upstream emissions and electricity GHG emission intensity are thedecisive factors determining the“low-carbon”character of hydrogen producedby methane splitting.Using LNG imported from the US would only fall below thelow-carbon threshold of 3.4 kgCO2eq/kgH2 if using very clean grid electricitysuch as in Sweden.ScalabilitychallengesRelianceonnaturalgasanditsassociatedinfrastructure is a long-term scalability concern.In addition,the technologycarries relatively high CAPEX costs and is heavily reliant on revenues from solidcarbon by-product which are very uncertain.CMETHANE SPLITTING(PYROLYSIS)48Methane splitting has fewer steps than other pathways,but the reactor design variessignificantly depending on the process anddesired by-productsNotes:This is a generic process diagram that can vary significantly depending on the used technologies and plant setup;While reforming of methane could also be perceived as splitting,theReforming productionpathway is explained in chapter 2.Source:Hydrogen Europe;ISO/TC 197/SC 1/WG;Canadian Institute for Clean EnergyTheprocess:Thetechnicaltermpyrolysisreferstothethermaldecompositionof materialsatelevatedtemperatures in the absence of oxygen.The report usesthe term methane splitting instead of pyrolysis to includetechnologies that work on a similar principle but do notrefertothemselvesaspyrolysis.Methanesplittingdecomposesmethaneintoitselementalcomponents:hydrogen and solid carbon.The reaction is endothermicand the energy necessary for the reaction can come fromvarious sources.Depending on the process,the natural gasused as a feedstock must be treated to filter other gaseoushydrocarbons and other compounds present in that naturalgas stream.Once hydrogen exits the reaction,dependingonthefinalend-use,itcan(but oesnthavetobe)treated/purified to achieve a specific purity level.Whilethis chapter focuses on methane splitting,other gaseoushydrocarbons can be used in the process such as propane.Solidcarbonby-products:Thereactordesign,usedcatalyst,and process temperatures dictate the type andcharacteristics of the produced allotropes of carbon.Carbon black is made at higher temperature reactions(+1300C),graphite depends on carbon-based catalysts,and metal-based catalysts can yield carbon nanotubes ornanofibers.With three tonnes of solid carbon per tonne ofhydrogen,its management and valorisation are oftenessential for a projects economic feasibility.Companiesstrive to improve their technologies to achieve optimisedsolid carbon production with specific allotrope output.TreatmentReactorHydrogenCH4OptionalPressure Swing AdsorptionH2Solid carbonHeatPSA tail gasH2Natural gasElectricityFigure 3.1:Methanesplitting process diagramSystem inputWaste productProductBy-productUnit/process3.Methane splittingProcess diagram49Technology development:Traditional pyrolysis reactors focused on the thermaldecomposition of methane at extremely high temperatures(1000C)to producehydrogen.However,higher temperatures require more robust and thus costlymaterials as well as higher energy inputs.As a result,numerous companies aredeveloping innovative reactors to improve the hydrogen yield,decrease neededtemperatures and increase re