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语言学复习第1页1.Invitations to Linguistics1.What is language?2.What are the design features of language?3.What is arbitrariness?4.What is duality?5.What is creativity?6.What is displacement?第2页7.The origin of language.8.What functions does language have?9.What is Linguistics?10.What are the main branches of linguistics?11.Important distinctions in Liguistics.1、Descriptive&Prescriptive（描描写写与与要要求求）2、Synchronic L&Diachronic L(共共时时L与与历历时时L)3、Langue&Parole（语语言言与与言言语语）4、Competence&Performance（语言能力与语言应用）（语言能力与语言应用）第3页Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic(内内在在)connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”Romeo and Julier第4页“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.They are arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission.第5页2.Speech Sounds1.What is phonetics?2.What are the three main branches of phonetics?3.Classification of English Consonants.4.Classification of Vowels.5.What is phonology?6.Whats the difference between phonetics and phonology?7.What is a phone?What is a phoneme?What is an allophone?第6页What is phonetics?The science studies the characteristics of human sound-making,especially those sounds used in speech,and provides methods for their description,classification and transcription.第7页 1Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学发音语音学Phonetics 2Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学声学语音学 3Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学听觉语音学第8页1.Articulatory Phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds.第9页2.Acoustic Phonetics：is the study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.第10页3.Auditory Phonetics：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.第11页Stop（Plosive）塞音（爆破音）塞音（爆破音）b p t d k gNasal 鼻音鼻音 m n Fricative 擦音擦音 f v s z Approximant 中通音中通音 j r wLateral 边通音边通音 lTrill 颤音颤音 r Tap and Flap 触音触音 Affricate 塞擦音塞擦音 t d 第12页Bilabial 双唇音双唇音 p b mLabiodental 唇齿音唇齿音 f vDental 齿音齿音 Alveolar 齿龈音齿龈音 t d n r s z lPostalveolar 后齿龈音后齿龈音 d tRetroflex 卷舌音卷舌音 rPalatal 腭音腭音 jVelar 软腭音软腭音 k g Uvular 小舌音小舌音 rPharyngeal 咽音咽音Glottal 声门音声门音第13页第14页“Phonology”is the study of sound systemsthe invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns.音音位位学学研研究究是是一一个个语语言言整整个个语语音音系系统统及及其其分分布布或或布布局局情情况况，包包含含某某一一特特定定语语言言里里语语音音或或音音位位分分布布和和结结合合规则或规律。规则或规律。第15页1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made,transmitted and received.2.Phonology is the study of the sound systems of languages.第16页1）Phone（音音素素）:a phonetic unit,the smallest part of phonetics.p t k heg.tip;pit;spit 语音属于言语语音属于言语2）Phoneme（音音位位）：phonological unit 是音位学单位，音位属于语言。是音位学单位，音位属于语言。/ph p=/3）Allophone（音音位位变变体体）:The different phones representing a phoneme are allophones./pit/;/tip/;/spit/第17页3.From Morpheme to Phrase1.What is morphology?2.What is a morpheme?What is an allomorph?3.What is a free morpheme?What is a bound morpheme?4.What is a root?What is a stem?What is an affix?5.What are open classes?What are closed classes?6.What is word?第18页“Morphology”is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words,and the rules by which words are formed.“Morpheme”is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit which cannot be divided.An An allomorph allomorph refers refers to to a a member member of of a a set set of morphs,which represent one morpheme.of morphs,which represent one morpheme.第19页Free Morphemes:independent of other plete meaning;used as free grammatical units in sentencesman,earth,wind,car,angerBound Morphemes:cannot occur as separate words recollection re/collect/ion第20页Root（词词根根）:is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.Stem（词词干干）:may consist of a single root morpheme or plus one or more affixational morphemes.Affixes（词词缀缀）:are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.第21页 Closed class words （封闭类词）（封闭类词）Open-class words （开放类词）（开放类词）1)Closed words:their membership is fixed or limited.E.g.pro.prep.conj.art.etc.2)Open-class words:whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.e.g.n.v.adj.adv.E.g.regarding/with regard to;throughout,in spite of第22页Word:is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning.第23页4.From Word to Text1.What is syntax?2.What is category?What is syntactic category?3.What is IC analysis?4.What are endocentric and exocentric constructions?5.What is concord?第24页1.What is Syntax?Syn:“together”Tax:“to arrange”Syntax:It studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language.In short:It studies the formation of sentences.第25页2.CategoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic category:能能在在句句子子中中起起相相同同作作用用词词组组成成相相同同句句法法范范围围。句句法法范范围围不不一一样样于于词词类类，两两个个属属于于不不一一样样词词类类词词可可能能属属于于同同一一句法范围。句法范围。第26页3.What is Immediate Constituent(IC)Analysis?The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction（结结 构构 体体）and its Constituents（成成份份）.To analyze their relations is IC.To show how small constituents in sentences go together to form large constituents.第27页With Bloomfields IC Analysis:The boy kicked the ball The boy kicked the ball第28页 S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The boy kicked the ballWith Chomskys Tree Diagram analysis 第29页4.Endocentric and Exocentric constructions:向向心结构和离心结构心结构和离心结构 P78 Endocentric Construction:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents.A word or a group of words serves as a definable“center.”某一成份决定了整体短语性质某一成份决定了整体短语性质two pretty girls第30页Exocentric Construction:opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole;there is no definable centre or head inside the group.整体短语中成份无法决定整体短语性质。整体短语中成份无法决定整体短语性质。It includes basic sentence,PP,(V+O)construction,and connective construction(be+complement).第31页Concord:also known as Agreement,the form of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.There is a book on the shelf.There are some books on the shelf.We are studying English.He studies English.第32页5.Meaning1.What is semantics?2.What is referential theory?3.What is ideational theory?4.What is the Semantic Triangle?5.How many kinds of meaning did Leech find and study?6.What is sense relation?7.What is entailment?What is presupposition？8.What is componential analysis?第33页Semantics:is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to,or stands for,is known as the referential theory.第34页Frege 为填补指称论之不足，提出了为填补指称论之不足，提出了观念论，认为语言符号和符号所指对观念论，认为语言符号和符号所指对象之间不存在直接指称关系，它是经象之间不存在直接指称关系，它是经过涵义（过涵义（Sense）这一过渡层面使得语）这一过渡层面使得语言与所指对象发生联络，意义不但仅言与所指对象发生联络，意义不但仅在于与所指对象之间关系，也包含词在于与所指对象之间关系，也包含词语本身涵义。语本身涵义。Ideational Theory Ideational Theory 观念论观念论第35页Ogden&Richards(1923):Semantic Triangle(Triangle of Significance)P36 Concept(Sense)概念（涵义）概念（涵义）-word(symbol)thing(referent)符号形式符号形式 指称对象指称对象第36页G.Leech recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics.1.Conceptual meaning 概念意义概念意义2.Connotative meaning 内涵意义内涵意义3.Social meaning 社会意义社会意义4.Affective meaning 感情意义感情意义5.Reflected meaning 反射意义反射意义6.Collocative meaning 搭配意义搭配意义7.Thematic meaning 主题意义主题意义第37页Sense Sense relationrelation:A A word word which which is is related related to to other other words words in in sense sense within within a a language language system itself.system itself.词与词之间不一样涵义关系词与词之间不一样涵义关系第38页 PolysemyPolysemy HomonymyHomonymy Sense RelationSense Relation SynonymySynonymy AntonymyAntonymy HyponymyHyponymy第39页1 1.PolysemyPolysemy (一一词词多多义义)：is is the the common common feature feature peculiar peculiar to to all all natural languages.natural languages.第40页2.HomonymyHomonymy:The The words words different different in in meaning meaning but but either either identical identical both both in in sound sound and and spelling spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.or identical only in sound or spelling.第41页 Perfect homonymPerfect homonym HomonymyHomonymy Homographs Homographs HomophonesHomophones 第42页3.SynonymySynonymy （同同义义关关系系）:words words different different in in sound sound and and spelling spelling but but nearly nearly alike alike or or exactly exactly the the same in meaning.same in meaning.第43页4.AntonymyAntonymy （反义关系）（反义关系）:as words which:as words which are opposite in meaning.are opposite in meaning.ComplementariesComplementaries Types of antonyms Types of antonyms ContrariesContraries ConversesConverses第44页V.V.HyponymyHyponymy （上上下下义义关关系系）:deals deals with with the the relationship relationship of of semantic semantic inclusion.inclusion.The The meaning meaning of of a a more more specific specific word word is is included included in in that that of of another more general word.another more general word.第45页Entailment 蕴涵关系蕴涵关系：Entailment is an important sense relation or logical relation between sentences.a.John killed Bill.b.Bill died.a.I saw a boy.b.I saw a child.(3)a.John is a bachelor.b.John is an unmarried.第46页Presupposition 预设预设下句为上句预设。下句为上句预设。甲：当今法国国王是个秃子。甲：当今法国国王是个秃子。乙：当今法国有位国王。乙：当今法国有位国王。第47页Componential Analysis(语语 义义成成份份分分析析)：by breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components,digging them out and classifying them,and showing their relationships is termed componential analysis.第48页father，mother，son，daughter包包含了一个两实体间关系词含了一个两实体间关系词 HUMAN MALE ADULTMan +Woman +Boy +Girl +第49页6.Language and Cognition1.What is Cognition?2.What are the main basic elements of cognition?3.What is the core principle of Cognitive Linguistics?4.What is iconicity?5.What is prototype theory?6.What is image schema?7.What is metaphor?What is metonymy?8.What is salience?第50页What is Cognition？Cognition：“认认识识”和和“认认知知”英英汉汉词词典典“认认识识”指指客客观观事事体体及及其其规规律律在在人人脑脑中中反反应应。感感+理理辞辞海海（1989,1999）：认认知知就就是是认认识识，指指人人类类认认识识客客观观事事物物、取取得得知知识识活活动动，包包含含知知觉觉、记记忆、学习、言语、思维和问题处理等过程。忆、学习、言语、思维和问题处理等过程。当当代代汉汉语语词词典典（第第5版版）：经经过过思思维维活活动动认认识、了解。识、了解。第51页认知最基本两个要素：动觉图式和基本范围：经过动觉图式和基本范围：经过人身体与客观外界互动而产人身体与客观外界互动而产生，可被直接了解，其它概生，可被直接了解，其它概念和范围则主要是经过隐喻念和范围则主要是经过隐喻认知机制而被简练认知。认知机制而被简练认知。第52页认知语言学关键标准语言也是一个认知活动，是对客观世语言也是一个认知活动，是对客观世界进行互动体验和认知加工结果。界进行互动体验和认知加工结果。现实现实 认知认知 语言语言第53页象似性语言符号象似于人们认知方式，且在其作用下一定程度地象似于现实世界，语符形式在音、形或结构上与其所表示意义之间存在映摄影同现象。该描写不但反应了象似性含有普遍性，存在于语言不一样层面，而且还为象似性理论提供了一条可应用系统研究线索。音音义义象象似似 形义象似形义象似 距离象似性距离象似性 数量象似性数量象似性 次序象似性次序象似性第54页句法象似性句法象似性距离象似性距离象似性John Haiman（1983）象象似似动动因因与与经经济济动动因因一一文文中中对对距距离离相相同同性性（the iconicity of distance）描述为：）描述为：The linguistic between expressions corresponds to the conceptual distance between them.（词词句句中中语语符符之之间间距距离离象象似似于它们所表示概念距离。）于它们所表示概念距离。）第55页give sb.sth.与与 give sth.to sb.距离象似距离象似性性give you a book give a book to youhelp sb.(to)do 结构与距离象似性结构与距离象似性He helped me finish the meal.He helped me to finish the meal.This medicine will help you to sleep.第56页apple，treeapple treeapple trees语，文语，文语文语文语和文语和文第57页次序象似性次序象似性语言单位排列次序象似于时间次序和语言单位排列次序象似于时间次序和文化观念文化观念Jacobson(1965)：The order of clauses corresponds in general to the order of events,as in“I came,I saw,I conquered.”(普通来普通来说，分句次序象似于事件次序，比如：说，分句次序象似于事件次序，比如：“我来，我看，我征服我来，我看，我征服”。)第58页59英语语序与汉语语序英语语序与汉语语序经常是不对应，这是因为英语经常是不对应，这是因为英语语序与实际生活中时间次序常是不对应。例：语序与实际生活中时间次序常是不对应。例：他他 从从 成都成都 坐坐 火火 车车 经经 遂宁遂宁 到到 重庆重庆。He came to Chongqing from Chengdu through Suining by train.第59页 原型范围原型范围（范围，即划分类别。男人（范围，即划分类别。男人/女人女人,好好/普通普通/差）差）第60页 意象图式意象图式 认知语言学关键标准为认知语言学关键标准为“现实现实 认知语言认知语言”，这是一个十，这是一个十分笼统概括，其中分笼统概括，其中“认知认知”包含很多细微过程，我们可将其详述包含很多细微过程，我们可将其详述为：为：现现 实实 互动体验互动体验 意象图式意象图式 范围范围 概念概念 意义意义 语语 言言 从上图可见，意象图式是在互动体验基础上形成，它又是从上图可见，意象图式是在互动体验基础上形成，它又是形成范围、概念和意义基础。所以意象图式在认知语言学中形成范围、概念和意义基础。所以意象图式在认知语言学中含有举足轻重地位。含有举足轻重地位。第61页 语言突显观语言突显观第62页 语语言言突突显显观观认认为为，语语言言结结构构中中信信息息选选择择与与安安排是由信息突出程度决定。排是由信息突出程度决定。如：如：The car crashed into the tree.The tree was hit by the car.第63页 台上坐着主席团。台上坐着主席团。主席团坐在台上。主席团坐在台上。笑声充满晚会。笑声充满晚会。晚会充满笑声。晚会充满笑声。The picture is above the blackboard.The picture is above the blackboard.The blackboard is below the picture.The blackboard is below the picture.第64页7.Language in Use1.What is pragmatics?2.What is the relation between pragmatics and semantics?3.What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning?4.What is the speech act theory?5.What is performative and constative?6.What is a locution,an illocution and a perlocution?7.What is the cooperative principle?第65页什么是语用学语用学，即研究语言使用学科。语用学，即研究语言使用学科。语语用用学学，研研究究在在不不一一样样语语境境中中话话语语意意义义恰恰当当地地表表示示和和准准确确地地了了解解，寻寻找找并并确确立立使使话话语语意意义义得得以以恰恰当当地地表表示示和和准准确确地地了了解解基基本本标标准准和准则。和准则。语语用用学学，研研究究话话语语在在使使用用中中语语境境意意义义，或或话话语语在在特特定定语语境境条条件件下下交交际际意意义义，尤尤其其研研究究在在不不一一样样语语言言交交际际环环境境下下怎怎样样准准确确地地了了解解语言和恰当地利用语言。语言和恰当地利用语言。第66页语义学与语用学联络和区分：语义学与语用学联络和区分：二二者者都都是是对对意意义义研研究究，但但它它们们是是在在两两个个不不一一样样层层面面上上对对意意义义进进行行研研究究：语语义义学学是是对对抽抽象象语语言言能能力力研研究究，语语用用学学是是对对言言语语行行为为（即即经经过过言言语语实实施施行行为为，是是说说话话人人跟跟听听话话人人对对抽抽象象语语言言能能力力利利用用）研研究究。二二者者之之间间差差异异大大致致上上就就是是意意义义和和使使用用方方法法之之间间差差异异。然然而而不不应应该该忘忘记记言言语行为是语言能力详细表达。语行为是语言能力详细表达。所所以以我我们们赞赞成成利利奇奇采采取取观观点点：“语语义义学学和和语语用用学学是是互互不不相相同同但但又又相相互互补补充充研究领域。研究领域。”第67页句子与话语句子与话语 句句子子：是是一一个个句句法法学学、语语义义学学概概念念，是是脱脱离离语语境境条条件件抽抽象象单单位位，多多用用于于指指抽抽象象语语法法结结构构或或脱脱离离语语境境条条件件结结构构组组合合，也也就就是是说说,它它是是按按照照一一定定语语法法规规则则组组合合起起来来、含含有有意意义义语语言言单单位位，其其意意义义就就是是词词汇汇意意义义和和语语法法意意义义组组合，在任何条件下它意义都是恒定。合，在任何条件下它意义都是恒定。话话语语：是是一一个个语语用用学学概概念念，话话语语就就是是特特定定语语境境条条件件中中所所使使用用句句子子、词词或或词词语语，表表达达是特定语境意义。是特定语境意义。第68页 言语行为理论言语行为理论 是是英英国国约约翰翰兰兰素素奥奥斯斯汀汀19551955年年提提出出。他他认认为为：为为了了传传递递信信息息，人人们们需需要要使使用用话话语语，但但话话语语并并非非都都是是为为了了传传递递字字面面意意义义或或表表示示话话语语本本身身语语义义信信息息，在在很很多多时时候候说说话话人人都都是是在在“经经过过言言辞辞行行事事”（doing doing things things with with wordswords）。比比如如，实实施施许许诺诺、发发出出警警告或威胁、表示请求、表示命令、进行批评等。告或威胁、表示请求、表示命令、进行批评等。在在一一定定语语境境条条件件下下经经过过话话语语实实施施行行为为，被被称称为为“言言语语行行为为”（speech speech actsacts），是是说说话话人人跟跟听听话话人对抽象语言能力利用。人对抽象语言能力利用。第69页I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.I bequeath my match to my brother.I bet you six pences it will rain tomorrow.I promise to finish it in time.I apologize.I declare the meeting open.I warn you that the bull will charge.第70页Locutionary act（发话行为）普通意义普通意义我们说话时候，要移动发音器官，发出按我们说话时候，要移动发音器官，发出按照一定方式组织起来，并被赋予了一定意照一定方式组织起来，并被赋予了一定意义声音。在这个意义上，当有些人说义声音。在这个意义上，当有些人说“Morning！”时，我们能够问：时，我们能够问：“他做了他做了什么？什么？”，而不问，而不问“他说了什么？他说了什么？”。答。答案能够是他发出了一个声音，单词或者句案能够是他发出了一个声音，单词或者句子子“Morning”。第71页Illocutionary act（行事行为）我我们们说说话话时时，不不只只是是说说出出一一些些含含有有一一定定意意义义语语言言单单位位，而而且且说说明明我我们们说说话话目目标标，我我们们希希望望怎怎样样被被了了解解，也也就就是是Austin说说含含有有一一定定语语力力（force）。我我们们能能够够说说“Morning！”有有问问候候语语力力，或或者者说说，它它应应该该被被了了解解成成问问候候。语语 力力，或或 者者 叫叫 行行 事事 语语 力力（illocutionary force），像像但但与与说说话话者者意意义义、语语境境意意义义或或附附加意义，能够译成汉语加意义，能够译成汉语“言外之意言外之意”。第72页Perlocutionary act（取效行为）说说话话能能够够看看成成做做事事第第三三种种意意义义，包包括括话话语语对对听听话话人人产产生生效效果果。经经过过告告诉诉听听话话人人某某事事，说说话话人人能能够够改改变变听听话话人人对对某某件件事事观观点点，或或者者误误导导他他，让让他他惊惊奇奇，诱诱导导他他做做某某事事，等等等等。不不论论这这些些效效果果是是否否符符合合说说话话人人本本意意，它们都能够看作说话人行为一部分。它们都能够看作说话人行为一部分。第73页 会话含义理论会话含义理论是
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