27-Statement--Question--Command--Exclamation.ppt

Lecture 27 Statement,Question,Command,ExclamationTeaching Contents27.1 Statements27.2 Questions 27.3 Commands and exclamationsIn terms of communicative functions,sentences may be divided into four types:statement,question,command and exclamation.27.1 StatementsStatements,also known as“declarative sentences”,are used to state a fact or non-fact,that is,to affirm or negate something.They are divided into two types.1)Positive statementsIn a positive statement,there might be different degrees of certainty about the truth of the information imparted.It might be tinted by a tentative attitude which helps to soften the tone and make the utterance and sound more polite.There are a number of expressions available for this purpose,including such attitudinal disjuncts as I think,I suppose,I guess,Im afraid.e.g.We have met before,if Im not mistaken.To reinforce a statement,another set of devices are available for use.These include emphasizers,reinforcement tags,double negatives as well as rhetorical questions.A rhetorical question is essentially an emphatic construction,which is a question in form but a statement in meaning.A negative rhetorical question is equivalent to a reinforced positive statement,while a positive rhetorical question to a reinforced negation.e.g.Many people will certainly lose their jobs.That was a trap,that was.Who doesnt know that?That was a lark,that was.那是只百灵鸟，确实是百灵鸟。此种类型附加句叫amplificatory tag或reinforcement tag。在此种尾句里指出现主语和助动词。如果没有助动词，则必须添加do/does/did。通过重复主语和助动词，就可以起到加强语气，确认事实的作用。e.g.He likes his beer,he does.确实喜欢。2)Negative statementsA statement may be negated by not or other negative words.Not usu.appears immediately after the operator.The combination of“operator+not”can be contracted in two ways:a contracted form of operator enclitic to the subject,e.g.hes not;or not enclitic to the operator,e.g.he wouldnt.a)What is negated by not may be the operator or other elements of the sentence.The former results in a negative sentence,while the latter does not necessarily make a negative statement.e.g.He wouldnt do it.He visited her not long ago.b)Sometimes when partial negation occurs at the initial position,the whole sentence is negated.e.g.No honest man would lie.c)Negative statements can be reinforced by shifting the negative word from its normal position to the head of the sentence,in which case subject-oriented inversion is often require.e.g.He would never do such a thing.d)Other devices for negative reinforcement include“not one/a single+singular noun”,“not a wink”,“not a finger”.e.g.Not a single sound was heard.e)Devices for negative reinforcement also include“never never”,“never+auxiliary do”and some set expressions.e.g.I shall never,never go there again.notany longer与not any more都可以表示“不再”的意思。e.g.I do not see him any more/longer.Hes not at school any longer/more.I cant wait any longer.I didnt feel sick any more.The pain had gone.含notany的否定句与含no的否定句在基本意义上是相同的。但是，后者比较正式，并且表示更为强烈的否定。e.g.I dont see any clouds.约等于I see no clouds.应当注意，含no的否定句可以将no放在句首。e.g.Dogs are not permitted here.约等于No dogs are permitted here.有时，no并不否定句子，而是否定名词本身(局部否定)，这样的句子不能用notany来代替的no的。e.g.No news is good news.没有消息便是好消息。No food at all is better than unwholesome food.no+noun 并不是否定某种职业或类属，而是否定从事某种职业的特征、技巧、素养或天分。Im no teacher.我不善于教书。教得不好/我不是教书的材料/没有教师的天分。Im not a teacher.我(在职业上)不是教师。有时候则表示主语具有主与所表达地人或事物的反面的属性。e.g.no youngster=quite old;no fool=very intelligent;no genius=foolish;He is no friend of mine.他是我的敌人。He is no chicken.他已经成熟了。He is no diplomat.他没有外交手腕/不机智。This idea is no good.Good是名词，no是形容词。这个想法没有用。Its no good arguing with you.This idea is not good.Not是否定副词，good是形容词。这个想法不好。27.2 Questions In terms of syntactic structure and communicative function,questions,also known as“interrogative sentences”,fall into four types:1)General questions They are also know as“yes-no questions”are asked for affirmation or negation.a)They may contain non-assertive words if there is no bias in expectation towards a positive or negative answer.If the speaker is predisposed to a positive answer,he shoulduse assertive,rather than non-assertive,forms.e.g.Is there anything wrong with the machine?Is there something wrong with the machine?b)Negative yes-no questions may appear in two forms“operator+nt+subject”and“operator+subject+not”.The contracted form suggests a mixture of positive and negative orientation,implying annoyance or disappointment at what ought to havehappened but did not happen.The non-contracted form is simply negative orientated,expecting a negative answer.e.g.Havent you finished your work yet?Have you not finished your work yet?c)In negatively-orientated questions,there usu.occur non-assertive word.If a negative question contains assertive forms,it is biased towards positive orientation.e.g.Havent you heard from him already?d)Contracted negative questions sometimes suggest an emotion of admiration.e.g.Isnt if a beautiful lake?This is in essence not a question but a reinforced positive statement that is used to express exclamation.Wont you come?No,I wont.英美人在答问时用Yes或No，完全决定于答话人本人言语行为的肯定：肯定性(肯定句)或否定性(否定句)，而不管答话人是否赞同问话人的陈述。中国人在答问时用“是/不是”，完全决定于答话人对问话的肯定(或赞同)或否定(不赞同)。-他知道吗？-是，他知道。(赞同)/不，他不知道。(不赞同)-他不知道吧？-不，他知道。(不赞同)Doesnt he know Russian?难道他不懂俄语吗？Yes,he does.不，他懂。No,he doesnt.是的，他不懂。陈述疑问句(declarative question/statement-question)：其语序跟陈述句的语序相同，而它的语调则跟一般疑问句的语调(升调)相同，并在书写时加上问号。其语义特点是，说话人对答案是有倾向性的，他倾向于他所需要的或所期望的回答。肯定的疑问句具有肯定的倾向性，否定的疑问句具有否定的倾向性。e.g.You realize the risks?你认识到风险了吧？He didnt pass the exam?没通过考试吧？You arent hungry?你不饿吧？还有一个用法：对谈话对方的陈述句进行反问：-I forgot the milk.-You forgot the milk?此情况下，陈述疑问句常常表示惊讶、喜悦或者要求谈话对方对刚才所说的话进行解释。感叹疑问句：其实际含义与表面含义恰好相反，不表否定，而是表示强有力的肯定。Wasnt if a 有时候在意义上实际上等于what a。e.g.Arent they lovely!他们多好看啊！Isnt that nice of them!Wasnt it a marvelous concert!不规则疑问句：主要用于美国英语，尤其是非正式语体。此类句子虽是疑问句，但是主谓句的语序却采用陈述句的语序。How come(how does it come that)引导句子属不规则句子：e.g.How come you are late?How come they left you in the dark?How come he isnt here?2)Special questionThey are also known as wh-questions and are generally introduced by wh-words such as who,whose,whicjh,where,what,when,how.The wh-word marks the focus of information to be asked about.They may be in normal order or in inverted order.When wh-word functions as subject or part of the subject,the question is in normal order.If not,it is in inverted order.e.g.Who phoned last night?Who are you talking about?They can be reinforced in two ways.One is to add ever to the wh-word.e.g.Who ever broke the window?The other way is to use some intensifying expressions such as on earth,the devil,the hell,the goodness,in the world,in heavens name,to convey emotional feelings of surprise,indignation.e.g.What on earth could it mean?3)Alternative questionsThey suggest two or more possible answers for the listener to choose from.There are two types:one is based on the structure of general question;the other is based on that of special question.e.g.Shall I give you a gin,a whisky,or a beer?4)Tag questionsThey are extensively used in spoken language.It generally consists of two parts:statement+question tag.The subject and verb in the question tag generally correspond with those in the statement.If the subject of the statement is a noun phrase,the tag usu.takes a corresponding pronoun as subject.A)There are 4 types:“positive statement+negative tag”,“negative statement+positive tag”,“positive statement+positive tag”and“negative statement+negative tag”.The first two are frequently used.e.g.That clock is slow,isnt it?That clock isnt slow,is it?That clock is slow,is it?That clock isnt slow,isnt it?tag question1)祈使句之后的附加疑问句：当主句为祈使句时，后面的will you/wont you/would you/could you/can you/cant you只是表示“请”的意思，并非真正的附加疑问句，因此常常不遵守附加疑问句的使用规则。但是，记住一点：在祈使句为否定句时，后面一般使用will you/can you。e.g.Post this letter for me,can you?Dont forget,will you?2)肯定句+肯定附加疑问句Youve had an accident,have you?陈述句是肯定的，附加疑问句也是肯定的例子，是比较罕见的，但它是英语中的正确用法。其作用在于表达“说话人通过推断或回忆对已经说过的情况得出了结论”。因此句首常用so、oh等。e.g.So you call that hard work,do you?这么说来，你把这叫做苦活？Youve found a job,have you?你已经找到了工作，是吧？So he likes his job,does he?这么说，他喜欢他的工作，是这样吧？有时候，这种形式的附加疑问句还可以用来表示惊奇或威胁等。B)They also take the form of“imperative sentence+question tag”,which is commonly used to soften the imperative tone.e.g.Carry this parcel for me,will you?C)The following are a few points to be noticed concerning the formation of question tags.a)With everyone,everyday,someone,somebody,no one,as subject in the statement,the subject in the tag is usu.he in formal style or they in informal style.If the subject in the statement is a non-personal compound such as everything,something,anything,nothing,the corresponding pronoun in the tag can only be the singular neutral it.b)With an existential sentence as the statement,the tag still keeps there as formal subject.c)When the statement contains such negative or semi-negative words as seldom,hardly,never,rarely,little,few,nowhere,nothing,the tag is usu.in the positive.But the tag is negative if the negative element in the statement is only a negative prefix.e.g.He was unsuccessful,wasnt he?d)With“I am”in the statement,the tag is“arent I”?e)With indefinite pronoun“one”as subject in the statement,the subject in the tag is one or he in formal style or you in informal style.f)When the statement is an SVO construction with a that-clause as object,the tag normally mirrors the subject and operator of the main clause.e.g.She says that you are to blame,doesnt she?However,when the main clause is I suppose,I think I believe,I suspect,I imagine,the tag mirrors the subject and operator of the that-clause.e.g.I suppose that he is serious,isnt he?g)With the verb have(in the sense of possession)as operator in the statement,the tag admits of either the have-form or the do-form.e.g.You have a nice house,havent/dont you?But when the statement is in the negative,the choice of verb form in the tag is determined by that in the statement.e.g.He hasnt a house of his own,has he?He doesnt have a house of his own,does he?If the verb have in the statement is used in its dynamic sense,the tag invariably take the do-form.e.g.You often have headache,dont you?h)With ought to as operator in the statement,the tag includes ought in Br.E or should in A.E.e.g.The child ought to be punished,oughtnt/shouldnt he?i)With used to as operator in the statement,the tag either takes the used-form or the did-form.e.g.He used to live in Beijing,usednt/didnt he?j)With neednt as operator in the statement,the tag generally includes need.e.g.You neednt go yet,need you?k)With must as operator in the statement expressing k)With must as operator in the statement expressing“obligation”,the tag usu.includes must.“obligation”,the tag usu.includes must.e.g.You must work hard next term,mustnt you?e.g.You must work hard next term,mustnt you?But when must means“to be necessary”,the tag But when must means“to be necessary”,the tag includes mustnt or neednt.includes mustnt or neednt.e.g.You must go home right now,mustnt/neednt you?e.g.You must go home right now,mustnt/neednt you?When must means“probability,certainty”,the tag When must means“probability,certainty”,the tag may include must or other operatorsmay include must or other operatorse.g.He must be very tired,mustnt he?e.g.He must be very tired,mustnt he?l)When the statement is an imperative sentence,the tag l)When the statement is an imperative sentence,the tag is generally is generally will you/wont you/wouldnt you?will you/wont you/wouldnt you?If the If the statement is a first person imperative sentence,the statement is a first person imperative sentence,the tag is tag is shall we?shall we?混合疑问句或连锁疑问句How much did you say this one cost?之所以叫混合疑问句，是因为它由两种类型的疑问句混合而成的。一是特殊疑问句：How much did this one cost?；二是一般疑问句：Did you say?。混合后，特殊疑问句的语序要发生变化：How much did you say this one cost?能否将did you say分析为插入语呢？当Wh-疑问词充当主语时，分析为插入语还讲得通：Who do you think murdered the lady?但是，当wh-疑问词作句子其它成分时，分析为插入语就讲不通了。How much did you say this one cost?因为插入语的本质是：去掉它之后句子结构仍然完整，而在下面的句子里去掉did you say之后，句子结构就不完整了。因此，我们必须把上面的疑问句看作一种特殊疑问句。混合疑问句中的一般疑问句的动词数量是有限的：say,think,guess,suppose,suggest等等。e.g.What do you think she would feel?27.3 Commands and exclamations1)Commands They are also known as imperative sentences and begin with a verb in the imperative mood and express a command,an instruction,a request,a suggestion.There are 3 types:the second person imperative,the first person imperative and the third person imperative.2)Exclamations 2)Exclamations They are also known as“exclamatory sentences”and They are also known as“exclamatory sentences”and refer to a special type of sentence that expresses refer to a special type of sentence that expresses strong feelings.Various ways are available to express strong feelings.Various ways are available to express strong feelings.When we talk about the exclamation strong feelings.When we talk about the exclamation as a special type of sentence,we only refer to the two as a special type of sentence,we only refer to the two kinds of sentence introduced by WHAT and HOW.kinds of sentence introduced by WHAT and HOW.What elements may function as the subject,object,What elements may function as the subject,object,complement,prepositional complementation and complement,prepositional complementation and adverbial.How elements are used as adverbials or adverbial.How elements are used as adverbials or modifiers.modifiers.e.g.What an enormous crowd came!e.g.What an enormous crowd came!What impertinence!What impertinence!How quickly you eat!How quickly you eat!