语言学教程第章形态学.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,本文档所提供的信息仅供参考之用，不能作为科学依据，请勿模仿。文档如有不当之处，请联系本人或网站删除。,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,本文档所提供的信息仅供参考之用，不能作为科学依据，请勿模仿。文档如有不当之处，请联系本人或网站删除。,本章学习的基本要点,1,.,搞清楚,基本概念,(,文字表述，基本内涵,),。,2,.,搞清楚,概念之间的联系和区别。,3,.,坚守概念,，理论联系实际。,4,.,通过上述方式，逐渐,建立自己的知识体系。,本课要学习的内容,1.,本章与上章之间的联系与界限,语言的三个层面,2.,什么是语素？,2.1,语素的定义，形态学的定义,2.2.,语素的分类,（重点）,2.3.,形态变化和语素变体,3.,什么是词,?,3.1,词和词项,词与词项的联系和区别；识别词的若干标准,3.2,词的分类,3.0,第,3,章导论,语言的形式层和意义层,语,言,形,式,层,sounding level,/,phonological level,/,语音,层,意,义,层,meaning level,/,semantic level,/,语义层,语言的形式层和意义层,语,言,形,式,层,1.sounding level,/,phonological level,/,语音,层,2.wording level,/,lexicogrammatical level,/,词汇语法,层,phonetics phonology,morphology syntax,text linguistics,意义,层,3.meaning level,/,semantic level,/,语义层,semantics,The Phonological Hierarchy of Languages ,语言的形式层之一：语音层,Rank 2,/,1,suprasegmental phoneme,超音段音位,音节,(,单音节，多音节,),；词；词组和短语；小句；小句复合体；,Rank 1,/,2,segmental phoneme,单音段音位,辅音音位,(24,个,),和元音音位,(20,个,),The Lexico-grammatical Hierarchy of Languages ,语言的形式层之二：词汇语法层,Rank 6,/,1,text,语篇,Rank 5,/,2,clause complex/sentence,小句复合体,/,句子,Rank 4,/,3,clause,小句,Rank 3,/,4,word group/phrase,词组,/,短语,Rank 2,/,5,word,词,Rank 1,/,6,morpheme,语素，词素,本章的结构即形态学的研究层次,3.5,word group/phrase,词组,/,短语,3.2,3.3,3.4,word,词,3.1,morpheme,语素，词素,1.,本章与其他章之间的联系与界限,语,言,sounding level,/,phonological level,/,语音,层,phonetics,phonology,wording level,/,lexicogrammatical level,/,词汇语法,层,morphology,syntax,text linguistics,meaning level,/,semantic level,/,语义,层,semantics,语言,的,切,分,（,langue,）,1.,语篇,（,text,）,话语,（,discourse,）,言语,的,切,分,（,parole,）,2.,句子,/,小句复合体,语句,（,utterance,）,3.,小句,/,分句,4.,词组,/,短语,5.,词,6.,语素,7.,音位音节,语音音节,8.,音段音位,音段音素,2.,什么是语素？,语素的定义,1,Morpheme,is,the smallest unit of language,in regard to,the relationship between sounding and meaning,a unit,that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,;,morphemes cannot be further analyzed.,就语音和语义的关系而言，语素是语言中最小的,（词汇语法和语义）,单位；语素不可再分割，除非丧失意义；也不可再深入分析。,语素的定义,2,A morpheme,is said to be,a,minimal meaningful unit,in the sense that,a morpheme cannot be further divided without destroying its meaning.,语素是语言中最小的有意义的单位，也就是说，它本身不可再分割，除非丧失意义。,语素的定义,3,A morpheme,is,traditionally the most basic element of meaning.,语素是最基本的意义成分。,语素的定义,4,A morpheme is a unit of grammar smaller than the word.E.g.,distasteful,is composed of morphemes realized by,dis-,taste,and,-,ful,.,The term was introduced in the late 19th century,and has had three main senses.,1,.,语素，词素,A unit smaller than the word which has grammatical as opposed to lexical meaning,.,2,.,语素,Any configuration of,phonological units,within a word which has either grammatical or lexical meaning,.,3,.,语素，词语,An invariant lexical or grammatical unit realized by one or more configurations of phonological units,.,见下页,语素是比词更小的语法单位。,1.,语素是比词更小的单位，,有语法意义和词汇意义,。,2.,语素是在词的范围内，表现为由若干个音位构成的组合，,具有语法意义或词汇意义,。,3.,语素,是一种词汇或语法单位,，具有稳定性，体现为由一个或多个音位构成的组合。,关于语素定义的,汇总,1,.,就语音与语义的关系而言，语素是语言中最小的单位；语素不可再分割，除非丧失意义；也不可再深入分析。,2,.,语素是语言中最小的有意义的单位，也就是说，它本身不可再分割，除非丧失意义。,3,.,语素是最基本的意义成分。,4,.,语素是比词更小的语法单位。,5,.,是比词更小的单位，有语法意义和词汇意义。,6,.,语素是在词的范围内，表现为由若干个音位构成的组,合，具有语法意义或词汇意义。,7,.,是一种词汇或语法单位，具有稳定性，体现为一个或多,个由若干个音位构成的组合。,关于,语素定义,的要点概括,1.,语素是在词的范围内。,所在地,2.,语素是最小的,词汇语法单位，也,是最小的意义单位,，,具有词汇意义和语法意义,。,兼为形式单位和意义单位,3,.,语素本身,具有稳定性，,不可再分割，除非丧失意义。,具有稳定性,4,.,语素体现为若干个音位构成的组合。,物质表现形式,形态学的定义,四种,1,.Morphology,as a branch of linguistics,is the systematic study of,morphemes,which studies the internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.,2,.Morphology,is concerned with,the internal organization of words,.,It studies the minimal units of meaning(i.e.morphemes)and word-formation processes.,语素的分类,1,Morpheme,根据是否可以单独构词,Free morpheme,自由语素,简写,F,Bound morpheme,粘附词素,简写,B,依据语素，对词进行的分类,Words,根据所含语素的数量,mono-morphemic,words,（,单语素词）,单语素词,F,poly-morphemic,words,（多语素词）,根据语素间的地位是否完全平等,compound,复合词,F+F,inflectional words,屈折词,F,+BI,derivative words,派生词,F,+BD,BD+,F,+BD,BD+B,derivative inflectional words,派生屈折词,F,+BD+BI,BD+,F,+BI,语素的分类,2,在多语素词,(,除复合词外,),内部的划分,Root,词根,free root morpheme,（自由词根语素,）,bound root morpheme,（粘附词根语素,）,Affix,词缀,根据在词中的位置,prefix,（,前缀）,infix,（,中缀）,suffix,（,后缀）,Stem,词干,Stem1,词根,+,词缀,屈折词缀,Stem2,词根,+,词缀,1,派生词缀,+,词缀,2,屈折词缀,Stem3,词根,+,词缀,1,+,词缀,2,词缀,n-1,+,词缀,n,屈折词缀,扩大词汇量的工具书,语素的分类,3,Inflectional affix,屈折词缀,Derivational affix,派生词缀,造新词的能力较弱，通常只略微增加词干的语法功能；只是生成词的多种形式；通常不明显改变词的意义。,造新词的能力较强；会改变词的意义。,不改变原词的词性,可能,不,改变原词的词性,增加与否取决于所属短语或句子中的其他因素。,增加与否只是取决于不同的表意意图。,主要是后缀。名词复数；名词所有格；动词第三人称单数；过去式；过去分词；现在分词；动名词；比较级和最高级,前缀，后缀，或同时。,名变动，形变副，形变动，形容词变否定，形变名，动变名，等,3.1.3,语素变体及形态变化,Morpheme,语素,Four Allomorphs,4,种语素变体,实例,in-,in,-,in,a,ctive,/in/,il,-,il,l,ogical,/il/,im,-,im,b,alance,/im/,ir-,ir,r,egular,/ir/,Meaning:not,Form:Allomorph,Sound:phoneme,（,2,）形态变化,-eth,主语是第三人称单数,do,(,e,),th,go,eth,h,ath,find,eth,hop,eth,现在,do,es,go,es,ha,s,find,s,hope,s,-est,主语是第二人称单数,do,(,e,),st,play,est,hear,est,speak,est,现在,do,play,hear,speak,第二人称代词的,“,昨与今,”,以前,现在,thou,you,ye,yee,thy,your,第,1,学期 第,12,讲第,3,章 形态学（,2,）,（,From Morpheme to Phrase,/,Morphology,）,3.2,什么是词？,3.2,什么是词？,词的确定,难道是一个问题吗？,3.2.1 word and lexical item,（词与词项）,word,与,lexical item,之间的联系与区别,word,（词）,lexical item,（词项）,II,II,Lexeme,（词位）,word form,（词形）,We need a new term for the more abstract kind of word of which the word forms,performs,performed,and,perform,are all inflectional variants.Let us call this more abstract kind of word a,lexeme,.,We can now say that,performs,performed,and,perform,are all inflected forms of the lexeme,and we can describe the grammatical function of,performed,by calling it the past tense form of the verb PERFORM.,确定词的几个因素：,（,1,）,Stability,（,2,）,Relative uninterruptibility,（,3,）,A minimal free form,注解：基本概念,语言（,langue,）,言语（,parole,）,语言能力,（,competence,）,语言运用,（,performance,）,音位（,phoneme,）,音素（,phone,）,语素（,morpheme,）,语素变体（,allomorph,）,词（,word,）,词项（,lexical item,）,句子（,sentence,）,语句（,utterance,）,底层形式,表层形式,本质,现象,资源或能力,对资源或能力的使用,语言、方言、个人言语及语言变体,1,语言,语言社团,2,大方言,1,大方言,2,语言社团,3,方言,1.1,方言,1.2,方言,2.1,方言,2.2,语言社团,4,小,方言,小,方言,小,方言,小,方言,小,方言,小,方言,小,方言,小,方言,语言社团,5,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,个人言语,语言现实,归纳,易混淆的知识点,音位,是,最小的,能区分意义的,单位,语素,词汇语法,具有意义的,词,自由形式。,词的若干种分类,分类，也叫范畴化,(categorization),，是人类最基本的思维活动和认知活动之一。,词在种类和意义上千差万别，既互相独立，各不相同，又彼此联系，不可分割。为了学习和研究的需要，需要超越日常的简单分类，而进行专门的科学分类。,3.2.2,词的分类之（,1,）,Variable words,可变词,Invariable words,不可变词,Variable words may have inflective changes.,Invariable words do not have inflective changes,在印欧语系语言中，拉丁语和梵语中最多，德语中次之，英语中最少。,since,when,seldom,through,hello,词的分类之（,2,）,Grammatical words,（语法词）,Lexical words,（词汇词）,Mainly working for constructing group,phrase,clause,clause complex,or even text,Mainly working for referring to substance,action and quality,conj;prep;article;pron,n;v;adj;adv;,Serving to link together different content parts,Carrying the main content of a language,Function words,（功能词、虚词）,Content words,（实意词、实词）,原文,1,意合式,我本来要去的，他不肯，只好让他去。,原文,2,形合式,我本来要去的，,(,但是,),他不肯，,(,所以,)(,我,),只好让他去。,译文,形合式,I wanted to do all that myself,but,he stopped me,so,I could do nothing,but,let him go.,1,.,原文,1,意合式,下雨了，别忘了盖车。,2,.,原文,2,形合式,(,如果,),下雨了，,(,那么你,),别忘了盖车。,3,.,原文,3,形合式,(,因为,),下雨了，,(,所以你,),别忘了盖车。,4,.,译文,1,形合式,If it rains,you are supposed to cover the bicycle.,5,.,译文,2,形合式,Because it has rained,you are supposed to cover the bicycle.,6,.,译文,3,意合式,It rains,；,cover the bicycle.,1,.,按照汉语语法的（,意合,）：,知彼知己，百战不殆,；,不知彼而知己，一胜一负,；,不知彼，不知己，每战必殆,。,2,.,现代白话译文：,了解敌人虚实，,又,了解自己强弱，百战都不会失败,；,不了解敌人,而,了解自己，胜败的可能分半,；,既,不了解敌人，,又,不了解自己，,那,就每战必败,。,了解敌人，了解自己，每战都不会有危险,；,不了解敌人,而,了解自己，胜败的可能各半,；,不了解敌人，,也,不了解自己，,那,就每战都有危险了,。,3,.,按照英语语法的（,形合,）,(,如果,)(,某人,),知彼,(,又,),知己，,(,那么,)(,他,)(,将,)(,在,),百战,(,中,),不殆。,(,如果,)(,某人,),不知彼而知己，,(,那么,)(,他,)(,将,),一胜一负。,(,如果,)(,某人,)(,既,),不知彼，,(,又,),不知己，,(,那么,)(,他,)(,将,)(,在,),每战,(,中,),必殆,。,4.,英语译文：,If,you know the enemy,and,know yourself,you need not fear the result of a hundred battles.,If,you know yourself,but,not the enemy,for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat.,If,you know,neither,the enemy,nor,yourself,you will succumb,in,every battle.,The distinction between grammatical words and lexical words leads to the distinction of“closed-class”and“open-class”words.,词的分类之（,3,）,Closed-class words,（封闭词）,Open-class words,（开放词）,whose membership is fixed or limited;,whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,pron;prep;conj;article;,n;v;adj;adv;,界限不绝对,界限不绝对,Auxiliary verbs,used to be treated as open-class words,are relatively closed in number.,Preposition,though a closed-class,is a relatively open one in English.,从,“,他,”,到,“,她,”,她,词的分类之（,4,）,词类,noun,名词,pronoun,代词,adjective,形容词,verb,动词,adverb,副词,preposition,介词,conjunction,连词,interjection,感叹词,article,冠词,Particles,小品词,Auxiliaries,助词,Pro-form,替代形式,Determiners,限定词,iv.Determiners,（限定词）,限定词,：在名词词组中，用在名词中心词（含其前置修饰语在内）之前的那些词，它们通常决定了这个名词词组的指称类型。,Determiner refers to,those,words,that,are used before the,noun,（,including its pre-modifiers,）,acting as,the head of a noun phrase,and,that,determine the kind of,reference,that,the nominal group has.,对比与替代,传统,语法中,part of speech,（词性）,element of sentence,（句子成分）,现代语言学中,word class,（词类）,syntactic function,（句法功能）,第,1,学期 第,13,讲第,3,章 形态学（,3,）,（,From Morpheme to Phrase,/,Morphology,）,3.3,构词（,1,）：从语素到词,新年快乐,天天开心,不断进步,形,态,学,屈折,形态学,通过屈折,方式,来构词,数、人称、限定性（限定的和非限定的），体、格,派生,形态学,通过,派生,方式,来构词,派,生,词根,+,派生词缀,派生词缀,+,词根,+,派生词缀,1.,改变词类的,2.,不改变词类的,复,合,复合（名词、动词、形容词、介词，等）,1.,向心型复合词,2.,离心型复合词,3.3.1,The Inflectional Way of Formation,通过屈折方式来构词,屈折（,Inflection,）：通过添加表示数、人称、限定性,（限定的和非限定的）,、体和格的屈折词缀来表示语法关系；添加屈折词缀并不改变（词缀所粘附的）词干的语法类别。,Inflection,indicates grammatical relations,by,adding inflectional affixes,such as,number,person,finiteness,aspect,and case,;,the adding of inflectional affixes will not change the grammatical class of the stems,（,to which they are attached,）,.,关于,finiteness,（限定性）,现代语言学中,传统语法中,finiteness,（限定性）,限定性是动词所具有的一种属性。,finite verb,（限定动词）,=,谓语动词,：用作句子中谓语的动词。,non-finite verb,（非限定动词）,=,非谓语动词,：不用作句子中谓语的动词；具体有：动词不定式、动名词、现在分词和过去分词。,3.3.2,The Derivational Way of Formation,通过派生方式来构词,派生，严格地说，是指新词的形成过程；可以进一步分为两种类型：派生型构词和复合型构词。,Derivation,in its restricted sense,refers to the process of how new words are formed.,It can be,further divided into,two sub-types:,the derivational type,and,the compositional type,（,1,）,Derivation,（,派生型构词法,）,Derivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes.,派生型构词法体现的是词根和词缀之间的关系。,Derivation,in contrast to inflections,can make the word class of the original word,either,changed,or,unchanged.,与屈折型构词法不同，派生型构词法，或者改变原词的词类，或者不改变原词的词类。,（,2,）,Compound,（,复合型构词法,）,复合词（复合构词法）是指那些由一个以上的自由语素构成的词，或者指将两个独立的词连在一起组成一个新词的过程。,The term,Compound,refers to,those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme,or,the way to join two separate words to produce a single new word.,复合词的分类,复,合,词,按照词类,名词复合词,动词复合词,形容词复合词,介词复合词,按照内部关系,向心型复合词,离心型复合词,1.,（,endocentric compound,）向心（型）复合词,/,内向型复合词,Endocentric compound,is a type of,compound,in which,one member functions as the head,and,the other its modifier,attributing a property to the head,.,The relation between the members of an endocentric compound can be schematized as AB is(a)B,.,向心（型）复合词,是指,这样的一种复合词，其中的一个成员作为整个复合词的中心成分，另一个成员作为其修饰语，赋予中心成分以某种属性。这种复合词的两个成员之间的关系可以概括为“,AB,是（一种）,B”,。,Ex.3-16,self-control(,自制,)eye-entertaining(,非常悦目的,),pain-killer(,镇痛剂,)bullet-resistant(,防弹的,),core-meaning(,核心意义,)virus-sensitive(,对病毒敏感的,foot-warmer(,脚炉,)machine washable(,能机洗的,),sun-tanned(,被太阳晒黑的,),foot-warmer,（脚炉、暖脚宝）,离心（型）复合词,/,外向型复合词,英文定义,The fact,that the word class of these,headless compounds,is not determined by any element inside them(that they have no internal centre,one might say),has led,some grammarians,to call,them,exocentric,compound,that is,having a centre outside themselves,figuratively speaking.,注释,headless compound,：,没有中心成分的复合词,headed compound,：,有中心成分的复合词,2.,（,exocentric compound,）离心（型）复合词,/,外向型复合词,The fact,has led some grammarians to call them,exocentric,that the word class of these,headless compounds,is not determined by any element inside them(that they have no internal centre,one might say),that is,having a centre outside themselves,figuratively speaking.,离心（型）复合词,/,外向型复合词,定义：对于没有中心成分的复合词而言，它的词类不是由其内部的成员决定的（也就是说，它的内部没有一个“心”），这种状况使得有些语言学家将这种其称作离心（型）复合词,/,外向型复合词。,According to this approach,headed compounds,（有中心成分的复合词）,would be regarded as having an internal centre,;,and,sure enough,they are sometimes called,endocentric,.,Ex.3-17,scarecrow,（稻草人）,takehome,（可以带回家的）,playboy,（花花公子）,lackluster,（无光泽的）,cutthroat,（凶手）,breakneck,（非常危险的）,get-together,（聚会）,come-hither,（吸引人的）,sit-down,（坐下休息）,beat-up,（破旧的）,breakthrough,（突破）,runaway,（逃亡的）,run-up,（助跑）,walk-in,（不用预约的）,3.,复合词的书写形式。,4.,向心型复合词中的中心成分：该词的右首部分,第,1,学期 第,14,讲第,3,章 形态学（,4,）,（,From Morpheme to Phrase,/,Morphology,）,3.4,构词（,2,）：词的变化,3.5,词组和短语,3.4,构词（,2,）：词的变化,词,的,变,化,（,1,）,Invention,（发明新词法）,（,2,）,Blending,（混合造词法）,（,3,）,Abbreviation,（缩写造词法）,（,4,）,Acronym,（首字母缩写法,/,缩略语）,（,5,）,Back-formation,（逆构词法）,（,6,）,Analogical creation,（类推构词法）,（,7,）,Class shift,（词类转移构词法）,（,8,）,Borrowing,（借入法）,（,1,）,Invention,（发明新词法）,Technological and economic activities are the most important and dynamic in modern human life,（,so,）,many new lexical items come directly from them.,经济和科技是现代人类生活中最重要、最有活力的组成部分，所以许多新词汇都来自于此。,（,2,）,Blending,（混合造词法）,Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by only joining the initial parts of the two words.,混合造词法（,Blending,）是一种相对复杂的复合构词形式，具体过程是：将第一个词的词首部分与第二个词的词尾部分，或者将两个词的词首部分，混合在一起。,Blending,is a relatively complex,form of compounding,in which,two words are blended,by,joining together,the initial part,of the first word,and,the final part of the second word,or,by only joining the initial parts of the two words.,（,3,）,Abbreviation,（缩写造词法）,缩写造词法（,Abbreviation,）也叫作截断法，具体来说是：通过以下三种手段造出一个新词，即截断原词的词尾部分（或者略微改动），截断原词的词首部分，或者截断原词的词首和词尾部分。,Abbreviation,is also,called,Clipping,（截断法）,:,a new word,is created,by the,following,methods,:,cutting the final part,（,or with a slight variation,）,cutting the initial part,or,cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly,.,（,4,）,Acronym,（首字母缩写法；缩略语）,Acronym is made up from the first letters of the full name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word group in science,technology and other special fields.,（,5,）,Back-formation,（逆构词法）,逆构词法是一种不正常的构词法，具体是指从语言中业已存在的一个较长的词中去掉一个假想的词缀，以此得到一个相对较短的词。,Back-formation,refers to,an abnormal type of,word-formation,where,a,shorter,word,is derived,by deleting an imagined affix,from,a longer form already in the language,.,（,6,）,Analogical creation,（类推构词法）,The principle of,Analogical Creation,can account for the co-existence of two forms,regular and irregular,in the combination of some English verbs,which is to be distinguished from,overgeneralization,（,过度概括,）,in that the latter is regarded as a mistake in the use of language.,（,7,）,Class shift,（词类转移法）,By shifting word class,one can change the meaning of a word,from,a concrete entity or notion,to,a process or attribution.This process of