土木工程专业英语第三单元课件.ppt

单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,土木工程专业英语,4.surpass,超过，胜过,(1)To be beyond the limit,powers,or capacity of,超过权限、权力或能力,(2)To be or go beyond as in degree or quality,在程度或质量上胜过或超过,5.exterior,外部的，外面的,反义词,interior,内部的,ex,表示“由.出来,自”之义,如：,ex-president,前任总统,14.conceal,隐蔽、隐瞒,conceal sth.from sb.,对某人隐瞒某事,如:,He concealed his real motives from me.,Words,Materials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building,including the load carrying frame,skin,floors,and partitions.,材料和结构形式被组合在一起形成了建筑物的不同部分。包括承重的框架、外墙、楼板层、以及隔墙。,The building also has mechanical and electrical systems,such as elevators,heating and cooling systems,and lighting systems.,建筑物还有机械和电力系统，比如，电梯、供暖制冷系统，照明系统。,The,superstructure,is that part of a building above ground,and the,substructure,and foundation,is that part of a building below ground.,上部结构是建筑物在地面上的部分,而下部结构以及基础是建筑物的地下部分。,super,-表示“在.上,加之”之义。,superabundant,过多的,有余的,Components of A Building,建筑物的组成部分,The skyscraper,owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century：steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator.,摩天大楼的存在归功于19世纪的两个发展：钢结构施工和载人电梯。,Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1855.,钢材作为一种建筑材料是始于1855年贝色麦转炉炼钢法的引入。,Gustave Eiffel(1832-1923)introduce steel construction in France.,工程师埃非尔将钢结构施工引入法国。,His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework.,他为1889年巴黎博览会设计的机器陈列馆和铁塔表现了钢结构的轻质性。,D,evelopment of High Buildings,高建筑物的发展,The Eiffel Tower,984 feet(300 meters)high,was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.,埃非尔铁搭高达300m，是当时人类修建的最高的结构，直到40年后，其高度才被美国的一系列的摩天大楼超过。,The first elevator was installed by Elisha Otis in a department store in New York,in 1857.,第一部电梯是由美国人奥的斯在1857年安装在纽约的一座商场里。,In 1889,Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower,whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.,1889年，埃非尔首次在埃非尔铁塔上安装大型升降机，这种液压式升降机每小时可以运送2350位乘客到最高点。,D,evelopment of High Buildings,高建筑物的发展,Eiffel Tower,In 1883,William Le Baron Jenney(1832-1907)supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction.,在 1883 年，詹尼将楼板设置在铸铁柱上形成一个像笼子一样的建筑物。,Skeleton construction,consisting of steel beams and columns,was first used in 1889.,框架建筑，由钢梁和柱组成，最早运用于1889年。,As a consequence of skeleton construction,the enclosing walls become a curtain wall rather than serving a supporting function.,随框架建筑出现的一个产物就是围护墙体成了“幕墙”，不再起承重的功能。,Masonry was the curtain wall material until the 1930s,when light metal and glass curtain walls were used.,二十世纪三十年代以前都是采用砖石作为幕墙材料，此后都是用轻型金属和玻璃作为幕墙材料。,Load-Carrying Frame,承重框架,After the introduction of the steel skeleton,the height of buildings continued to increase rapidly.,随着钢结构的引入，建筑物的高度迅速增加。,All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War II.,直到二次世界大战，所有的高层建筑都采用钢结构。,After the war,the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall buildings being built of reinforced concrete,.,战后，钢材的短缺和混凝土质量的改进，促使高层建筑采用钢筋混凝土。,Marina Towers(1962)in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States；its height588 feet(179 meters)is exceeded by the 650-foot(198-meter)Post Office Tower in London and by other towers,芝加哥的Marina塔是美国最高的混凝土建筑；它的高度（179m）被伦敦的邮政大楼（198m）和其它的塔超过了。,Load-Carrying Frame,承重框架,Marina Towers and Post Office Tower,A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall.,对于摩天大楼态度的改变，使得人们又回到了对承重墙体的使用。,In New York City,the Columbia Broadcasting System Building,designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962,has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot(1.5-meter)wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet(3 meters)from column center to center.,在纽约市，埃诺沙里宁设计的哥伦比亚广播大楼，有一片墙体是由宽度为1.5m，柱距为3m的混凝土柱子组成。,This perimeter wall,in effect,constitutes a bearing wall.,这片墙体实际上形成了一个承重墙体。,Load-Carrying Frame,承重框架,One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube;the World Trade Center,buildings are another example of this tube approach.,这种趋势出现的一个原因就是将建筑物作为一个筒体，可以更经济的利用外边的墙体抵御风荷载的作用。世贸中心就是利用筒体的一个例子。,In contrast,rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability.,与之对比，刚性框架或垂直桁架体系通常提供侧向稳定性。,Load-Carrying Frame,承重框架,The skin of a building consists of both transparent elements(windows)and opaque elements(walls).,建筑物的外墙由透明部分（窗户）和不透明部分（实墙）组成。,Windows are traditionally glass,although plastics are being used,especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem.,窗户是传统的玻璃，尽管也采用塑料，特别是在学校，打碎玻璃常引起维修方面的问题。,The wall elements,which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it,are built of a variety of materials:brick,precast concrete,stone,opaque glass,plastics,steel,and aluminum.,实墙用于结构的维护以及承重，可以用各种各样的材料：砖，预制混凝土，石头,不透明物玻璃，塑料，钢和铝。,Wood is used mainly in house construction;it is not generally used for commercial,industrial,or public buildings because of the fire hazard.,木材主要用于住宅类建筑，商业、工业或其它公共建筑，考虑到火灾的危险性不常使用。,Skin,外墙,The construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used.,楼板层的施工取决于所采用的基本结构框架。,In steel skeleton construction,floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping.,在钢结构中，楼板层可以是放置在钢梁上的混凝土平板也可以是波纹钢组成的楼板，面层是混凝土。,In concrete construction,the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams(ribs)in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab,giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside.,在混凝土结构中，楼板层可以是放置在混凝土梁上的平板（密肋楼盖），也可以是井字梁楼盖，底部看来很象华夫饼干。,Floors,楼板层,The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space.,这种楼板结构形式取决于支撑的柱或墙的跨度以及空间的功能。,In an apartment building,for instance,where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet(3.7 to 5.5 meters),the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams.,举例来说，在一个公寓建筑物中，墙壁和柱子的跨度是3.7m到5.5m，最受欢迎的是不带梁的混凝土平板。,The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it.,平板的下方是下部空间的天花板。,Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations when enclosed by another sheet of metal form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.,办公建筑中常采用波纹钢板，这是因为波纹钢地板的波纹由另一块金属板盖上时，可以形成电话线和电线的管道。,Floors,楼板层,A modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended(office,classroom,apartment)but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment.,现代建筑不仅有功能空间（办公室、教室、公寓），还有用于机械和电力系统的辅助空间，它们帮助提供一个舒适的环境。,These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute,构成，组成,25%of the,total building area,.,一幢摩天办公大厦的辅助空间可能占到,总建筑面积,的25%。,The importance of heating,ventilating,electrical,and,plumbing,铅管,systems,in an office building is shown by the fact that 40%of the,construction budget,is allocated to them.,办公建筑中供暖、通风、电力和,卫生设备,系统占到,建筑预算,总额的40%显示了其重要性。,Mechanical and Electrical Systems,机械和电气系统,Because of the increased use of sealed,密封的,buildings with windows that cannot be opened,elaborate,详尽说明；变得复杂,mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air conditioning.,因为不能开窗的封闭建筑的使用增加，就只有采用复杂的机械系统来提供通风和空气调节。,Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery.,使用管道从中央换气房间（中央风机室）和空气调节机带来新鲜空气。,The ceiling,which is suspended below the upper floor construction,conceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units.,天花板，悬挂在上部的楼板层下面，将管道隐藏起来，并在上面安置照明设备。,Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits.,动力线和电话线也可以放置在天花板的这个空间内，或者放在管道里埋在楼板层中。,Mechanical and Electrical Systems,机械和电气系统,There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of buildings by frankly expressing them;for example,the American Republic Insurance Company Building(1965)in Des Moines,Iowa,exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant,优雅的,pattern and dispenses,分配,with,免,the suspended ceiling.,已经有种种尝试将机械和电力系统通过忠实的表达它们从而合并到建筑中。举例来说，爱荷华州的美国保险公司(1965)将管道和楼板结构以一种有组织的讲究的方式暴露出来，并且省掉了悬挂的天花板。,This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations,such as in the span of the structure.,这种做法有可能减少建筑物的成本，并且允许比如结构跨度上的革新。,Mechanical and Electrical Systems,机械和电气系统,American Republic Insurance Company Building,All buildings are supported,on the ground,;and therefore the nature of the,soil,becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building.,所有的建筑物都被基础支撑；因此在做所有建筑物的设计时都要对土的性质做特别重要的考虑。,The design of a,foundation,depends on many soil factors,such as type of soil,soil stratification,thickness of,soil layers,and their compaction,and,groundwater,conditions.,基础,的设计取决于许多土的因素，比如土的类型，土的,分层,组成，,土层,的厚度以及它们的密实性和,地下水,的情况。,Soils rarely have a single composition;they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness.,土很少有单一的组成成分，它们通常在不同厚度的土层中以混合物的形式出现。,Soils and Foundations,土和基础,For evaluation,soils are,graded,according to,particle,size,which increases from silt,淤泥、泥沙,to clay to sand to gravel to rock.,为了评估，土根据,颗粒,的大小被分为淤泥质土、粘土质、砂土、（砾石）碎石和岩石。,In general,the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones.,一般来说，较大颗粒的土比颗粒小的土更能承重。,The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot(976.5metric tons/sq meter),but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot(2.44 metric tons/sq meter).,最坚硬的岩石每平方英尺可以承受100吨重量，而最软的淤泥质土壤只能承受每平方英尺0.25吨的重量。,Soils and Foundations,土和基础,All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction;that is,they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it.,地表下所有的土壤都处于受压状态，也就是，这些土承受与作用在其上的土柱重量相等的压力。,Many soils(except for most sands and gavels)exhibit elastic propertiesthey deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed.,许多土壤(除了最大多数的砂和砾石以外)表现出弹性性质，当处于荷载作用受压状态下它们发生变形，当荷载移开时，恢复原来的状态。,The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent,that is,deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary from minutes to years after a load is imposed.,土壤的弹性性能通常随时间变化（依赖于时间），也就是，当施加荷载作用后，土壤的变形可持续几分钟到几年的时间。,Soils and Foundations,土和基础,Over a period of time,a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil.,经过一段时间，一幢建筑物如果对土壤施加的作用力大于土壤所受的自然压力（土的天然压实重量），建筑物会发生沉降。,Conversely，a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight.,相反地，如果它作用于土壤的力小于土壤所受的自然压力，建筑物可能隆起。,The soil may also flow under the weight of a building;that is,it tends to be squeezed out.,土壤也可能在建筑物重力作用下发生滑移（流动），也就是，有可能发生挤压。,Due to both the compaction and flow effects,buildings tend to settle.,由于受压和流动效应，建筑物可能发生沉降。,Soils and Foundations,土和基础,Uneven settlements,exemplified by the leaning,倾斜,的towers in Pisa and Bologna,can have damaging effects-the building may lean,walls and partitions may,crack,windows and doors may become inoperative,and,in the extreme,a building may collapse.,不均匀沉降，例如,比萨斜塔,和博洛尼亚斜塔，会造成破坏性作用建筑物发生倾斜，墙体和隔墙会发生,裂缝,，窗户和门无法打开，最严重的是，建筑物坍塌。,Uniform settlements are not so serious,although extreme conditions;such as those in Mexico City,can have serious consequences.,均匀沉降没有这么严重，尽管极端的一些情况，比如墨西哥城的那些沉降，就造成了严重的后果。,Over the past 100 years,a change in the,groundwater level,there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet(3 meters).,在过去100年，,地下水位,的改变造成了一些建筑物沉降超过3m。,Soils and Foundations,土和基础,leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna,Because such,movements,can occur during and after construction,careful analysis of the behavior of soils under a building is vital.,因为这些,移动,会在施工时或施工完后发生，因此仔细分析建筑物下部的土特性是非常重要的。,The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem.,土的多变性决定了解决基础问题的多样化。,（displacement位移）,Where,firm,soil exists close to the surface,the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete(spread footing).,地表附近存在,坚硬,土时，最简单的解决方法就是将柱子放置在小型混凝土平板上（扩大基底）。,Where the soil is softer,it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area;in this case,a continuous slab of concrete(raft or mat筏或者垫)under the whole building is used.,土层较软时，有必要将柱子放在一个较大面积的基底上，在这种情况下，在基底会采用连续的混凝土平板（筏基）。,Soils and Foundations,土和基础,In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building,piles,of wood,steel,or concrete are driven down,驱动,to firm soil.,在地表附近的土不能支撑建筑物的重量的情况下，打下木桩、钢桩、混凝土桩使土密实性提高。,The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure.,建筑物的施工自然是从基础再到上部结构。,The design process,however，proceeds from the roof down to the foundation(in the direction of gravity).,然而，设计过程则是从屋顶到基础（按重力作用方向）。,In the past，the foundation was not subject to 遭受到systematic investigation.,过去，基础设计不进行系统的调查研究。,Soils and Foundations,土壤和基础,A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century.,在20世纪，科学的基础设计方法才发展起来。,Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations,using the science of soil，mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures.,美国的太沙基 运用土学、力学、探测学和实验作出的超前的研究让精确预测基础的特性成为可能。,Foundation failures of the past,such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa,have become almost nonexistent.,过去由于基础的失败，比如经典的比萨斜塔，现在已经不会再出现了。,Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings.,基础仍然是许多建筑物隐蔽的而且花费昂贵的部分。,Soils and Foundations,土和基础,