语言学-discourse-analysis.ppt

,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,单击此处编辑母版标题样式,单击此处编辑母版文本样式,第二级,第三级,第四级,第五级,*,Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis,语篇分析,1,Major contents,1.Discourse and discourse analysis,2.Information structure,3.Cohesion and coherence,4.Discourse markers,5.Conversational analysis,6.Critical analysis,2,1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis,Discourse,Language above the sentence or above the clause.(Stubbs,1983:1),Text linguistics/discourse analysis,written spoken,Used interchangeably now,3,1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis,Discourse analysis,Discourse linguistics/discourse studies/text analysis,The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.,p168,4,1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis,Language in use,Pragmatics:meaning,Discourse analysis:information structure,Most powerful instrument:Functional Systemic Grammar,5,1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis,Fertilizers put back what the rain and plants take away.Plastic pots are not just substitutes for clay ones.Pears are a little more temperamental than apples.Supporting and training are not quite the same thing.,6,1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis,Pick up a handful of soil in your garden.Ordinary,unexciting earth.Yet it is one of Nature,s miracles,and one of her most complex products.Your success as a gardener will largely depend upon its condition,so take the first bold step in gardening-get to know your soil.,7,1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis,A primary task,of DA,is to explore the linguistic features which characterize discourse.,The goal of DA,is to examine how reader or user of a discourse recognizes that parts of a discourse are dependent on others.,One of the most important features,of discourse is cohesion(,衔接,),8,1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis,Topics of DA,:,Information structure(,信息结构,),Cohesion(,衔接,),Coherence(,连贯,),Discourse makers(,话语标记语,),Conversational analysis(,会话分析,),9,2 Information Structure,How do language users arrange information within discourse?,2.1 Given and new information,Alice:Who ate,the bread,?,Tom:,Mary,ate,the bread,.,Given information,:known to the addressee,New information,:unknown to the addressee.,10,2.1 Given and new information,Given information can be introduced by one speaker alone:,A man,called while you were on your break.,He,said hed call back later.,Given information can be something closely related to the mentioned information(e.g.,meronymy,),（部分,-,整体关系）,Kent returned,my car,last night after borrowing it for the day.,One of the wheels,was about to fall off and the,dashboard,was missing.,11,2.1 Given and new information,Forms of N/G information,:,New-information carriers usually receive,more stress,and they are commonly,more elaborated,e.g.with a full noun phrase,relative clause or adjectival modifier(s).,E.g.When I entered the room,there was,a tall man with an old-fashioned hat on,quite elegantly dressed.,12,2.1 Given and new information,Given information is expressed in shorter forms(pronouns/unstressed noun phrase/omitted):,A:Who ate the apple?,B:Mary,did,./,Mary,.,13,2.2 Topic and comment,话题和述题,Topic,话题,:what the utterance is about.,Comment,述题,:what is said about the topic.,Topic,is the element of a sentence that functions as the center of attention.,Topic is usually the subject,noun phrase.,Mary,ate the bread.,14,2.2 Topic and comment,Other elements can take the role too.,After tea,will you tell me a story.,Mark the topic,Place topic in the initial position in English.,A beautiful dress,she did make.,Topic,is not necessarily a property of the sentence;it may be a property of the discourse context:,Oh,look!,15,2.2 Topic and comment,Topic-comment vs.given-new information,Given-new information,:the point of view of the,listener,.,Topic-comment,relates to that of the,speaker,.,The given element is that which the speaker presents as already being,known to the listener,.,The topic element represents,what the utterance is about,.,16,2.2 Topic and comment,Given information is not always the topic.,Mary ate the bread.As for,her little sister,she drank the Coca-Cola.,new/topic,Peter didnt believe anything the charlatan said.As for Mary,she believed everything he said,.,given/comment,17,2.2 Topic and comment,Topic-comment vs.rheme-theme,Rheme-theme,:sentence,Topic-comment,:discourse,Rheme-theme,:concrete sentence structure(linguistic form),Topic-comment,:abstract information structure,Mikes house,was so comfortable and warm!,He,really didnt want to,leave,but,he,couldnt afford the,rent,you know.And,it,had such a nice garden,in the back,!,18,2.2 Topic and comment,Topics are not so important to the grammar of English.,There is only one grammatical structure which marks topics in English.,As for,me,I,m gonna go to bed.,Other languages have special forms to mark the topic(Japanese,Korean),Chinese marks topics by word order:,作业,终于做完了！,19,2.2 Topic and comment,In English,marking the topic of a sentence is far less important than marking the subject.,There are special forms to indicate the subject:,She,look,s,at him.,20,2.3 Contrast,对比,Contrast,:a noun phrase occurs in opposition to another noun phrase in the discourse.,contrastive,A:Did,Tom,see the ghost?,B:No,John,did.,B:Yes,Tom,saw the ghost.,21,2.3 Contrast,对比,One outstanding from all is contrasted with the whole:,Of,everyone,present,only,Peter,knew what was going on.,Adele,knew what was going on,and,Peter,knew what was going on.,Contrast,is also marked in sentences that express the narrowing down of a choice from several candidates to one.,22,2.3 Contrast,对比,Test for contrast,:,If a noun phrase can be followed by,“,rather than,”,it is contrastive:,A:Did,Tom,see the ghost?,B:No,John,rather than,Tom,saw the ghost.,B:No,Tom see,the angle,rather than,the ghost,.,23,2.3 Contrast,对比,A single sentence can have,several contrastive noun phrases,:,A:Did Tom see a ghost?,B:Yes,Tom,saw,a ghost,but,John,saw,an,entire cast of spirits,.,Contrast is observed from,the discourse context or situational context,.,Mary,likes going to,Maine,during,the winter,.,24,2.3 Contrast,对比,Employee:Can I leave early today?,Manager:,I,don,t mind.,In English,contrastive noun phrase can be marked by pronouncing it with strong stress:,You,may be smart,but,he,s good-looking.,25,3.Cohesion and Coherence,衔接,&,连贯,How sentences are combine to form texts?,It,s practically impossible to restrain,children,when,they,get to grips with,technology.Which,is why,the computer equipment,used in schools has to be designed and build to,a standard,above and beyond the normal call of duty.,A standard,that,s set by Research Machines.,26,3.Cohesion and Coherence,Which,is why the computer equipment used in schools has to be designed and built to,a standard,above and beyond the normal call of duty.It,s practically impossible to restrain children when they get to grips with technology.,A standard,that,s set by Research Machines.,27,3.Cohesion and Coherence,3.1 Cohesion,衔接,The grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements(sentences or segments)of a discourse.,Cohesive devices,衔接手段,A coherent discourse has certain words and expressions in it which link the sentences together.,Reference,substitution,ellipsis,conjunction and lexical cohesion.,28,3.1 Cohesion,A coherent discourse are sentences linked closely.,A:Is,Jane,here?,B:No,she,isn,t.,You can lead,a horse,to water but you can,t make,him,drink.,How sentences are explicitly linked together in a discourse?,29,3.1.1 Reference,参照,/,照应,Reference words,:pronouns(,it,they.),demonstratives(,this,that,),the definite article(,the,)and items like,such as,.,e.g.There is,a house,near the river.,That,is,John,s,.I didn,t know,it,was,his,.,30,3.1.1 Reference,参照,/,照应,Two types of reference,:,endophora,内参照,:the interpretive source lies,in the co-text,.,exophora,外参照,:the interpretive source lies,in the context,.,e.g.(,Mary,is standing here)I like,her,.,31,Endophora(,内参照,),:,anaphora,回指,:the referent lies,in the prior text.,e.g.Look at,the dog,it,is dancing!,cataphora,后指,:the referent lies,in the following text.,e.g.When I met,her,Mary,looked ill.,32,Types of reference,anaphora,回指,endophora,Reference,内参照,cataphora,后指,指称,exophora,外参照,33,3.1.2 Substitution,替代,The process or result of replacing one word by another at a particular position in a structure.,A:I,ve lost my,dictionary,.(substituted),B:Get a new,one,.(substitute),Three types of substitution,Nominal substitution,(to replace a noun or noun phrase),Verbal substitution,(to replace a verb phrase),Clausal substitution,(to replace a clause),34,Reference vs.Substitution,Reference is a relation on semantic level.,Noun,pronoun/noun phrase,Jack,him,A group of students,those students,Substitution is a relation on the lexico-grammatical level,a relation between words and constructions,and they have same function.,new watch-new one.,35,Reference vs.Substitution,As relation between meanings,reference,can be,anaphoric,cataphoric and exophoric,.,Substitution,is a relation,within text,the majority of substitution are highly depending on the linguistic context,and it mainly happens in the later text.,36,3.1.3 Ellipsis,省略,Leaving out a construction of a sentence for reasons of economy,emphasis or style,and the omitted parts can only be recovered by the reader from the previous discourse.,Substitution by zero,Do you like it?,No,I don,t,(like it),.,Subtypes:Nominal,verbal and clausal ellipsis,37,3.1.4 Conjunction,连词,An item or a process whose primary function is to connect words or other construction,.,I was not invited.,Otherwise,I would have been there.,coordinator,并列连词,(and,but,),subordinator,从属连词,(because,when),conjunctive adverbs,连接副词,(however,indeed,),If,you do good,good will be done to you;,but,if,you do evil,the same will be measured back to you.,Therefore,let,s do good.,38,Lexical cohesion is,cohesion through the use of words,i.e.the writer or speaker relates the text consistently to its area of focus through the selection of lexical items.,repetition,重复,Three types,:synonym,同义词,collocation,上义词,3.1.5 Lexical cohesion,词汇衔接,39,Repetition:,repeat the same words,or general nouns,or other words sharing the majority of semantic features.,The,donkey,died;the,poor creature,has worked hard all his life.,Superodinate,:the same word,synonym or near-synonym,superordinate,general words,collocation.,I watched a,football game,last night,and became very upset when the,referee,pulled out 3,red cards,in a minute.,40,Repetition of lexical items,.A repeated item may be a repetition of an earlier item,a synonym or near-synonym,a superordinate,or a general word.,There is a,boy,playing with fire.,The,boy,is going to burn himself if he doesnt take care.,(repetition),The,lad,is going to burn himself if he doesnt take care.,(synonym),The,child,is going to burn himself if he doesnt take care.,(superordinate),The,idiot,is going to burn himself if he doesnt take care.,(general word),41,Collocation,搭配,：,the tendency of certain lexical items to co-occur.,A little fat man of Bombay,Was,smoking,one very hot day,But a bird called a snipe,Flew away with his,pipe,Which vexed,（生气的）,the fat man of Bombay,42,3.2 Coherence,连贯,Interestingly enough,the use of cohesive devices alone may not produce texts that“make sense”.Consider the following passage:,e.g.,I bought a,Ford,.,A car,in which President Wilson rode down the,Champs Elysees(,香榭丽舍大街,),was,Black,.,Black,English has been widely,discussed,.The,discussion,between the presidents ended last,week,.A,week,has seven,days,.,Every day,I feed my,cat.,Cats,have four legs.The,cat,is on the,mat,.,Mat,has three letters.,43,从前有座山，山上有座庙，庙里有个老和尚，老和尚在和小和尚讲故事,:,从前有座山,44,Coherence:,the relationships which,link the meanings of utterances,in a discourse or of the sentences in text.,It concerns peoples ability to match the text with their experience or their understanding of the word.,If a stretch of a language is in line with some experience or their“common sense”,it will be recognized as a meaningful text.,45,Coherence,is sth underlying the text-,semantic connections,logical connections or temporal sequence,.It is created by our real life knowledge.,Cohesion,is the verbal realization of coherence in the form of cohesive devices.As we see in the last sample passage.,46,(50)Student:Ive lost my bunch of keys!,Roommate:Its a fine day today.,Student:So youve got a free dinner.,(p197),47,George studied law in Cambridge.And he is now a lawyer.,George studied law in Cambridge.He is now a lawyer.,The absence of the conjunctions“and”in the second sentence does not affect coherence at all.We know from our experience that being a lawyer is a likely outcome of studying law.,In summary,there can be no meaning cohesion without coherence,but coherence without cohesion may be perfectly possible.,48,7.4 Discourse markers,话语标记语,What is the definition of discourse markers?,How many types of discourse marker are there?,49,discourse markers,(DM,):,expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.,conversational particles:,well,and,oh,parenthetical lexicalized clauses:,yknow,I mean,and,you see,connective elements,so,after all,and,moreover,.,50,The,main role,of discourse markers:,to guide speakers interpretations of the utterances.,The features of DMs,:DMs seem to clarify a texts structural relations for the reader.Despite any differences in their use in different types of discourse,these items share a number of formal and textual features.,51,7.5 Conversational analysis,The analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are and how conversation is used in ordinary life,is called,conversational analysis,(CA).,52,Three mechanisms in CA,adjacency pairs(,相邻语对,),preference structure(,首选结构,),presequences(,前序列,),It includes the study of how speakers decide when to speak during a conversation,how the utterances of two or more speakers are related,and the different functions that conversation is used for.,53,7.5.1 Adjacency pairs,相邻语对,Certain turns have specific follow-up turns.Questions take answers.Greetings are returned by greetings,invitations by acceptances or refusals,and so on.Such sequences of turns are called,adjacency pairs,:a,sequence of two related utterances by two different speakers.,The second utterance is always a response to the first.,54,(56)A:You left the light on.,B:It wasnt me!,the sequence of,complaint-denial,is an adjacency pair.,55,Adjacency pairs have five properties:,Adjacency pairs consist of two utterances,a first part and a second part.,The two parts are spoken by different speakers.,The first and second parts belong to specific types,for example,question and answer,or greeting and greeting.,56,The form and content of the second part depends on the type of the first part.,Given that a speaker has produced a first part,the second part is relevant and expectable as the next utterance.,57,Adjacency pairs,come,in many types,question-answer greeting